Pt1-02-THE USE OF METAPHOR IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
THE USE OF METAPHOR IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 1. Military and Naval Metaphors
METAPHOR enters largely into New Testament language. In most instances the metaphor is preserved in the translation, but some words lose much in the process. The following are a few examples of military and naval metaphors which deserve to be made more explicit.
Atakteo occurs but once in the New Testament, and is rendered in the Authorised Version and Revised Version "behave disorderly" (2 Thessalonians 3:7). Paul said, "For yourselves know how ye ought to follow us; for we behaved not ourselves disorderly among you". In its primary sense, the word was used to describe soldiers marching out of order. Moffatt’s rendering, "We did not loaf", is from a secondary meaning.
Thriambeuo is found twice (2 Corinthians 2:14; Colossians 2:15), with the meanings "cause to triumph" and "triumph". The former passage reads: "Now thanks be unto God, which always causeth us to triumph in Christ, and maketh manifest the savour of His knowledge by us in every place." The Authorised Version rendering suggests the idea of victory, but does not go far enough. The Revised Version gets nearer the original when it renders, "leadeth us in triumph". Moffatt’s rendering is better still: "He makes my life a constant pageant of triumph in Christ."
Thriambos was a Festal Hymn to Bacchus, sung in processions. In Roman times the verb was applied to triumphal processions wherein prisoners were led as a spectacle exhibiting the glorious victory of the warrior. Paul was living victoriously, and bringing many captives to grace the Lord’s triumphal procession.
Opsonion. In Romans 6:23, Paul says that the wages of sin is death. A translation must fail to tell all that can be said about the word rendered "wages". Originally the term denoted little dainties in the way of food. It came to be used of rations portioned out to soldiers, and then passed to the meaning of a soldier’s pay. Finally, it broadened into the sense of "reward" generally.
Pleroma is a great New Testament word, in the sense of "fulness", in such passages as Ephesians 1:22-23 --"the church, which is His body, the fulness of Him that filleth all in all". To give an adequate treatment of its use in the New Testament would require a chapter to itself. But one of its uses in Classic writers and also in the inscriptions is most suggestive. Picture a Greek ship of war--its three ranks of rowers in position, the men of war fully equipped, the time setter or boatswain ready to give the rhythmic beat for the rowers, the naval commander and his staff alert for the attack. Under such conditions a trireme had its Pleromaits full complement. With caution this usage of the word could be employed to illustrate the thought that the church--the pleroma of Him that filleth all in all--must be fully equipped and ready for action.
Kubernesis. Another naval metaphor is found in the word translated "governments" in 1 Corinthians 12:28 : "God hath set some in the church, first apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers, after that miracles, then gifts of healings, helps, governments, diversities of tongues." Moffatt renders it "administrators". The word occurs in this passage only in the New Testament. Now a kubernetes was a steersman or pilot, and kubernesis is the act of steering. Among the gifts God has set in the church is the power to act like one who skilfully steers a vessel. Certainly there are many rocks upon which churches may be wrecked.
2. Metaphors Based on Athletics In New Testament days, athletics entered largely into public life. It is not surprising, then, that New Testament writers based some graphic metaphors upon games and contests. Agonia is used in one passage only--Luke 22:44 --and is translated "agony", the reference being to the experience of Jesus in Gethsemane. This word strictly denotes the feeling of an athlete before the contest, the Greek word for which is agon. He is anxious about the result; he enters the contest with a certain amount of trepidation. The word fittingly describes the "intense struggle and pressure of spirit" which Jesus felt as He approached the awful mystery of His passion.
Theatron was a term used both of the semi-circular building in which plays were acted, and also of a show held therein. In 1 Corinthians 4:9, Paul says: "For I think that God hath set forth us the apostles last, as it were appointed to death: for we are made a spectacle (theatron) unto the world." This is a contrast to the picture presented in thriambeus. In the use of that word he was depicting the Lord’s triumph and his share therein. Here the apostles are likened to death-doomed gladiators forced to fight in the arena. The words appear in a context largely ironical, for Paul is referring to his critics, but in this verse his emotions, deeply stirred by the injustice done him, lead him to a strong statement of the sufferings endured for Christ’s sake by the apostles.
Enkopto is used in Galatians 5:7 : "Ye did run well; who did hinder you?" The word means "cut in", and suggests the putting of an obstacle in the way of a runner. Originally it was a metaphor from military operations, "to break up a road by destroying bridges, etc." In Acts 24:4, Tertullus uses the word in stating to Felix the accusation against Paul. In the Authorised Version the passage reads: "Notwithstanding, that I be not further tedious unto thee, I pray thee that thou wouldest hear us of thy clemency a few words." Tertullus was fearful lest he was interrupting Felix in his many duties.
Ekneuo is found in John 5:13 only. Jesus had healed a lame man on the Sabbath day. The Jews asked the cured man who it was that healed him. He did not know, for "Jesus had conveyed Himself away". Moffatt renders, "Jesus had slipped away". "Had turned aside" would be a good translation, for the metaphor in the word is from the action of bending the head aside to avoid a blow. The simple verbneuo means "to nod".
Hupopiazo occurs in two places in the New Testament--Luke 18:5; 1 Corinthians 9:27. In the former, the verse reads, "Yet because this widow troubleth me, I will avenge her, lest by her continual coming she weary me". Moffatt renders, "Not to have her for ever coming and pestering me". In 1 Corinthians 9:27, Paul says, "I keep under my body", where Moffatt gives, "I maul and master my body". By etymology the word refers to that part of the face under the eyes, and gives the meaning, "I strike under the eye", or "I give a black eye". Paul took strong measures with himself, even if he let himself go a little with his language!
3. Metaphors Based on Physical Gestures and Features
Gesture is closely related to speech. At times it becomes practically a language in itself, as in codes for signalling. Usually, however, it is employed as an aid to speech, to give emphasis to certain words, or to point direction where ambiguity is in the words alone. Gestures are most frequently used when the passions are roused, or the emotions stirred as in fear. New Testament metaphors from gestures and features are most prominent in narratives relating to mocking or affected behaviour, but they are also used in other relations.
Mukterizo is a word which occurs in Galatians 6:7 only, so far as the New Testament is concerned: "God is not mocked." A compound form of the word occurs in Luke 16:14; Luke 23:35, where the reference is to those who mocked Jesus. Literally, the word means "to turn up the nose" (mukter meaning the nose) in derision.
Muopazo occurs once only in the New Testament--2 Peter 1:9 : "But he that lacketh these things is blind and cannot see afar off." Moffatt gives "short-sighted". Our word "myopia" is derived from the term. The physical action suggested is the half-closing of the eyes in the effort to see. Spiritual myopia is a dangerous symptom!
Sunpnigo in Luke 8:42 is translated: "But as He went the people thronged Him." It is the same word as is used in the Parable of the Sower concerning the action of the thorns. It means "to choke", and was evidently used colloquially, as we use the expression, "I am stifled".
Khleuazo is another word expressive of scoffing. It is found in Acts 2:13; Acts 17:32, where the reference is to those who mocked the truth preached. Khleue was a jest or joke, and the verb means scoffing by action and word.
Perpereuomai is used once only in the New Testament. 1 Corinthians 13:4 says that love "vaunts not itself". Moffatt renders, "Love makes no parade". "To play the braggart" is the meaning given by Moulton and Milligan. Cicero used a compound form of the word to describe one who employed "rhetorical embellishments in extolling another excessively".
Phrisso occurs in James 2:19 only: "The devils believe and tremble." Strictly the word refers to the hair standing on end through fear. In the Septuagint Version the word is used in Job 4:15, where the translation is given, "A spirit came before my face; and my hair and flesh quivered".
Apokaradokia, which is translated in the Authorised Version "earnest expectation" in the two passages where it occurs (Romans 8:19; Php 1:20) is a metaphor based on the action of stretching out the head in concentrated attention to catch the first glimpse of an object. The kindred verb was used by several writers, and Deissmann cites a parallel to Romans 8:19 from the inscriptions in which certain oppressed peasants petition an official whose parousia (coming) they have been expecting.
4. A Miscellaneous Group of Metaphors There is a great variety in the metaphorical language of the New Testament. The following examples do not readily yield to classification, but are of sufficient interest to merit special treatment:-
Kubeia, which occurs in Ephesians 4:14 only, "by sleight of men", is rendered "adroitness" by Moffatt. it is a metaphor from dice-playing, so often accompanied by the trick of the hand which deceives the eye. Our word "cube" is derived from the Greek root.
Prokope is used three times in the New Testament. Twice it is translated "furtherance", and once "profiting". The passages are: Phil. i:12, "But I would ye should understand, brethren, that the things which happened unto me have fallen out rather unto the furtherance of the gospel"; Php 1:25, "And having this confidence, I know that I shall abide and continue with you all for your furtherance and joy of faith". 1 Timothy 4:1-5 reads, "Meditate upon these things; give thyself wholly to them; that thy profiting may appear to all". This word is a compound formed from a preposition giving the meaning "before" and a verb meaning "to cut". Hence there is concealed in the term a metaphor from a pioneer cutting his way through brush-wood a fitting illustration whether applied to the progress of the gospel or to advance in spiritual life.
Saino appears in 1 Thessalonians 3:3 only. Paul had been anxious over the Thessalonian Christians, because persecution had broken out. He had sent Timothy to ascertain how they were enduring their trials, and Timothy’s report of their faithfulness had greatly encouraged the apostle., In his Epistle he told the brethren at Thessalonica that he had sent Timothy to comfort them, and then added the words among which saino occurs: "That no man should be moved by these afflictions." A strange metaphor is here. The word is used properly of dogs wagging their tails! It came to be used of persons fawning upon others and so beguiling them. In 1 Thess. iii it is in the passive, and must mean "drawn aside" or "disturbed". Emendations of the text have been suggested.
Stigma, appearing only in Galatians 6:17 : "I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus," is from a root meaning "to prick", and was used of the brand-marks burnt or cut into the skin of a slave. Paul regarded his scars as marks of his willing service to Christ, though others regarded them as marks of shame.
Trokhos is found only in a rather obscure text, James 3:6. Speaking of the tongue, James says that it "setteth on fire the course of nature". In the Revised Version, the word is rendered by "wheel" while Moffatt has the tautological phrase, "the round circle of existence". In the New Commentary on Holy Scripture this note is given on the phrase: "Nature (genesis) means all human life. The tongue is like the axle of a wheel which gets red-hot, and then sends the fire along the spokes, until the whole wheel is ablaze. Furious and uncontrolled speech makes the individual man as unapproachable and useless as a burning mass, and then spreads into society around him and sets all ablaze. Contrast the fire of the Spirit, which at Pentecost consecrated tongues to the service of Christ." Others explain the phrase to mean "our changeful life", from the rapid motion of a wheel, or the "orb or cycle of creation".
Hupogrammos is another word confined to a single passage--1 Peter 2:21 --"Christ also suffered for us; leaving us an example, that ye should follow His steps." Etymologically, the word means "writing under". It was used of words given to children to copy, both as a writing exercise and as a means of impressing a moral, in much the same style as a modern copybook, only with ancient writing materials. Sometimes it was employed with reference to the act of tracing over written letters. Hence there is an easy change of metaphor in Peter’s words from tracing over to planting the feet in the prints left by another.
Aggareuo is used three times in the Gospels in the sense of "compel". Matthew 5:41 reads, "Whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain." Matthew 27:32, "As they came out, they found a man of Cyrene, Simon by name: him they compelled to bear His cross." Mark 15:21 is a parallel to Matthew 27:32. The word was of Persian origin, and was used of public couriers whose duty it was to carry royal messages from stage to stage. These postmen had the power to impress into the service horses, vessels and men.
There are many other metaphors but these are sufficient to show the wealth of illustrative material that lies buried in our New Testament vocabulary.