07. State Ceremonials
State Ceremonials
Chapter VI In the description which has been given of the Persian king’s daily life, his appearance and ordinary attendance at his court have been represented. But, in order that the reader may have a complete idea of oriental state splendor and ceremony, it is necessary to describe the court as it is seen on some great occasion. The greatest and most magnificent solemnity, in which the king forms the principal figure, is the festival of Nurooz, celebrated at the vernal equinox. It is one of the most ancient institutions of Persia, and the sculptured procession on the great staircase of the ancient ruined palace of Persepolis is supposed to embody a representation of one of the most interesting circumstances of the solemnity—the presentation of the tributes and presents of the various provinces of the empire. The festival was anciently held to commemorate the commencement of the natural new year, by the entrance of the sun into the sign Aries; and so noted did it become in the ideas of the people and the habits of royalty, that the conversion of the nation to Mohammedanism, and the alteration of the commencement of the year by the adoption of the lunar calendar, were not sufficient to insure its abrogation, or even to diminish much of its splendor. Rather than give it up, the Persians have been content to endure from other Moslems the reproach of impiety, in the maintenance of a festival which originated with the fire-worshippers of old. They have, however, changed its ostensible object to a celebration of the election of Ali to the caliphate. It has, however, sustained some abridgment. It formerly lasted six days, but is now limited to three. The solemnities of the first day are the most important and magnificent, and the lively description of its circumstances, which Sir Robert Ker Porter has given, is that which, with some curtailment, we shall adopt.
“It was a fine morning, and at eight o’clock we mounted our horses, proceeding through narrow streets, and a part of the bazaar, which terminated at the outer gate of the ark.[16] After passing over an open space, we crossed the bridge of the citadel, and thence were conducted into a very large square. A dome-shaped building of wood, open to the eye, appeared in the middle of the place, and under its roof stood the enormous brass cannon which Chardin mentions having seen in the Maidan-ahab,[17] at Ispahan. It was brought from that capital several years ago, and stationed here, on three huge and apparently immovable carriage. Old guns, of various calibre, all equally awkward and unmanageable, and mingled with a few of modern fabric, stand round the sides of this central structure. Not far distant, about two hundred swivels lay in rows on the ground. They belonged to the camel corps, who were on duty to salute the king on his entrance into the great assembly of his people. And, indeed, it might well have that title, for persons of all ranks were thronged together within the walls of the outer court. Persians of the lowest orders, some decently attired, others in the rags of mendicants, khans in khelats (the robe of honor), covered with gold and brocade, servants in gorgeous coats, and soldiers in their military garbs—all pressed on each other in one equalizing mob. It was not practicable to get our horses through such a mass of human beings, so we dismounted at the entrance of the square, and following the necessity of shouldering our way to the opposite egress, tried, by that wedge-like motion, to make a passage to the royal portal. Awe of the chief headsman did not widen the path an inch, neither did the hard-plied kicks of the chargé d’affaires’ domestics in front effect the slightest breach; they might as well have battered a wall. However, we got through at last, with no small impression made upon our court-apparel, and the shawls of our waists rent into as many strips as we had tugs in our passage. Leaving the throng behind, we turned under a narrow and dark archway to a low and very small door, and entered through it at once upon the quarter of the palace. It showed a spacious area, shaded with trees, and intersected by water. In the center stood the splendid edifice, where his majesty was to sit to receive the homage of his subjects. We were led towards the southern aspect of this place the grand saloon fronting that way, where the ceremony of royal presentation was to be performed, and were carefully stationed at the point deemed best for seeing and hearing the great king. Before his majesty appeared, I had time to observe the disposition of the scene in which this illustrious personage was to act so conspicuous a part.
“Rows of high poplars, and of other trees, divide this immense court, or rather garden, into several avenues. That which runs along the midst of the garden is the widest, inclosing a narrow piece of still water, stretching from end to end, and animated here and there with a few little jets d’eau, the margins of which were spread with oranges, pears, apples, grapes, and dried fruit, all heaped on plates, set close together like a chain. Another slip of water faced diagonally the front of the palace, and its fountains being more direct in the view of the monarch, were of a greater magnificence and power, shooting up to a height of three or four feet—a sublimity of hydraulic art, which the Persians suppose cannot be equaled in any other country. Along the marble edges of the canal and fountains were also placed fruits of every description, in pyramids; and between each elevated range of plates with these their glowing contents, stood vases filled with flowers, of a beautiful fabric, in wax, that seemed to want nothing of nature but its perfume. In line, beyond these, was set a regular row of the finest china bowls, filled with sherbet. In the parallel files, down the sides of the wide central avenue, stood the khans and other Persians of rank, arrayed in their most costly attire, of gold and silver brocade, some of them wearing in addition the royal khelat, which usually consists of a pelisse lined with fine furs, and covered with the richest embroidery, their heads bound with cashmere shawls of every color and value.
“The royal procession made its appearance. First, the elder sons of the king entered, at the side on which we stood, Abbas Meerza taking the left of the whole, which brought him to the right of the throne. His brothers followed, till they nearly closed upon us. Directly opposite to this elder rank of princes, all grown to manhood, their younger brothers arranged themselves on the other side of the transverse water. They were all superbly habited, in the richest brocade vests and shawl-girdles, from the folds of which glittered the jeweled hilts of their daggers. Each wore a robe of gold stuff, lined and deeply collared with the most delicate sables, falling a little below the shoulder, and reaching to the calf of their leg. Around their black caps they also had wound the finest shawls. Every one of them, from the eldest to the youngest, wore bracelets of the most brilliant rubies and emeralds, just above the bend of the elbow.
“At some distance, near the front of the palace, appeared another range of highly revered personages—mullahs, astrologers, and other sages of this land of the east, clothed in their more somber garments of religion and philosophy. There was no noise, no bustle of any kind; every person standing quietly in his place, awaiting the arrival of the monarch. At last, the sudden discharge of the swivels from the camel corps without, with the clang of trumpets, and I know not what congregation of uproarious sounds besides, announced that his majesty had entered the gate of the citadel. But the most extraordinary part of the clamor was the appalling roar of two huge elephants, trained to the express purpose of giving this note of the especial movements of the great king.
“He entered the saloon from the left, and advanced to the front of it, with an air and step which belonged entirely to a sovereign. I never before had beheld anything like such perfect majesty; and he seated himself on his throne with the same indescribable, unaffected dignity. Had there been any assumption in his manner, I could not have been so impressed. I should then have seen a man, though a king, theatrically acting his state: here I beheld a great sovereign, feeling himself as such, and he looked the majesty he felt.
“He was one blaze of jewels, which literally dazzled the sight on first looking at him; but the details of his dress were these:—A lofty tiara of three elevations was on his head, which shape appears to have been long peculiar to the crown of the great king. It was entirely composed of thickly set diamonds; pearls, rubies, and emeralds, so exquisitely disposed as to form a mixture of the most beautiful colors in the brilliant light reflected from its surface. Several black feathers, like the heron plume, were intermixed with the resplendent aigrettes of this truly imperial diadem, whose bending points were finished with pear-formed pearls of an immense size. The vesture was of gold tissue, nearly covered with a similar disposition of jewelry; and crossing the shoulders were two strings of pearls, probably the largest in the world. I call his dress a vesture, because it sat close to his person, from the neck to the bottom of the waist, showing a shape as noble as his air. At that point, it devolved downwards in loose drapery, like the usual Persian garment, and was of the same costly materials with the vest. But for splendor, nothing could exceed the broad bracelet round his arms, and the belt which encircled his waist; they actually blazed like fire, when the rays of the sun met them; and when we know the names derived from such excessive luster, we cannot be surprised at seeing such an effect. The jeweled band on the right arm was called ‘the mountain of light,’ and that on the left, ‘the sea of light.’
“The throne was of pure white marble, raised a few steps from the ground, and carpeted with shawls and cloth of gold, on which the king sat in the fashion of his country, his back supported by a large cushion, encased in a network of pearls. The spacious apartment in which this was erected is open in front, and supported by two twisted columns of white marble, fluted with gold. The interior was profusely decorated with carving, gilding, arabesque painting, and looking-glass, which latter material was interwoven with all other ornaments, gleaming and glittering in every part from the vaulted roof to the floor. Vases of water flowers, and others containing rose water, were arranged about the apartment.
“While the great king was approaching his throne, the whole assembly continued bowing their heads to the ground, till he had taken his place. A dead silence then ensued, the whole presenting a most magnificent and, indeed, awful appearance; the stillness being so profound among so vast a concourse, that the slightest rustling of the trees was heard, and the softest trickling of the water from the fountains into the canals.
“In the midst of this solemn stillness, while all eyes were fixed on the bright object before them; which sat, indeed as radiant and immovable as the image of Mithras itself, a sort of volley of words, bursting at one impulse from the mouths of the mullahs and astrologers, made me start, and interrupted my gaze. This strange oratory was a kind of heraldic enumeration of the great king’s titles, dominions, and glorious acts, with an appropriate panegyric on his courage, liberality, and extended power. When this was ended, all heads still bowing to the ground, and the air had ceased to vibrate with the sounds, there was a pause for about half a minute, and then his majesty spoke. The effect was even more startling than the sudden bursting forth of the mullahs; for this was like a voice from the tombs—so deep, so hollow, and at the same time so penetratingly loud. Having thus addressed his people, he looked towards the British chargé d’ affaires, with whom I stood, and then we moved forward to the front of the throne. The same awful voice, though in a lowered tone, spoke to him, and honored me with a gracious welcome to his dominions. After his majesty had put a few questions to me and received my answers, we fell back in our places, and were instantly served with bowls of a most delicious sherbet, which very grateful refreshment was followed by an attendant presenting to us a large silver tray, on which lay a heap of small coin, called a shy, of the same metal, mixed with a few pieces of gold. I imitated my friend in all these ceremonies, and held out both my hands to be filled with the royal largess, which, with no little difficulty, we passed through our festal trappings into our pockets.
“When the rest of the gratulatory compliments of the day had been tittered between the monarch and his assembled nobles, the chief executioner, our former herald, gave us the signal that all was over for that morning. We then retired, as we came, under his auspices, but, if possible, with still more pressure and heat, than we had battled through on our approach.”
We have not broken the continuity of this striking description by any remarks of our own, but a few may now be offered. The dazzling effect of the jeweled dress worn by the king on state occasions has been noticed by many travelers, aided, as that effect is, by the mass of jewelry presented by the cushion against which he leans. It reminds one of what Josephus states respecting that Herod (Agrippa) whose frightful death is recorded in Acts 12:21-23, where it is said that, “upon a set day Herod, arrayed in royal apparel, sat upon his throne, and made an oration unto them. And the people gave a shout, saying, It is the voice of a god, and not of a man.” So Josephus adds to this information, that the blasphemous shout of the people, ascribing divine honors to the king, was extracted at the moment when his “royal apparel,” which is also specially noticed by the sacred writer, caught the sun’s rays, and shone with such dazzling radiance that the people broke forth into a shout of flattering adoration.
It is true that Josephus does not say that the effect was produced by jewels, but by a curiously wrought tissue of silver, doubtless like the silver brocade which Persian kings and princes still wear, but there is little reason to doubt that jewels contributed to the effect which was thus occasioned. The shout which the people then raised may very well bear comparison with “the strange outcry” raised when the Persian king, in all the dazzling glory of his attire, presented himself to his people; and the analogy extends somewhat further, as “the enumeration of the king’s titles, dominions, and glorious acts, and the panegyrics on his courage, liberality, and extended power,” contain very much which can be true of God only, and which, to our judgment, savors much of blasphemy and man-worship.
Here the thought occurs, that if frail human glory—the glory of a man that shall die—arrayed in vestures wrought by man’s toil, can thus strike and overpower the sense, what must it be to witness “the glorious appearing of the great God and our Savior Jesus Christ?” (Titus 2:13). It was, doubtless, the consciousness of the strong impression which even human glory may make, which caused the ancient belief that no man could look upon the Divine glory, and yet live. So when, in the year that king Uzziah died, the prophet “saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up” (Isaiah 6:1) and heard the hovering seraphims cry one unto another, “Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts: the whole earth is full of his glory!” (Isaiah 6:3) he at once cried out, “Woe is me! for I am undone; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips: for mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts” (Isaiah 6:5). But when a seraph had touched his lips with a living coal from the altar, and said, “Lo, this hath touched thy lips; and thine iniquity is taken away, and thy sin purged” (Isaiah 6:7) he beheld that glorious vision undisturbed. So shall all who believe the gospel, redeemed by the precious blood of the Lamb of God, and sanctified by the gracious operations of the Holy Spirit, behold, with undazzled and admiring eye, that unutterable glory in which our Lord abides, and in which he shall reappear—that glory, a mere glimpse of which struck the persecuting Saul, on his way to Damascus, blinded to the ground. In 2 Samuel 1:10, we read of “the bracelet” that was upon the arm of Saul, as being equally with his crown an ensign of his royalty. This shows the antiquity of this mark of royal dignity, of which the armlets of the Persian kings afford at this time the most conspicuous example. We also see them in the portraits of all the successive Mogul emperors. In fact, the very armlets worn by the king once belonged to them, being part of the spoil which was brought by Nadir Shah from Delhi.
It seems that even the “crown royal,” mentioned in the book of Esther, resembled in its materials and general appearance that now in use, as eastern fashions change little in this respect, and it answers to the general type of an ancient eastern crown which sculptures and coins afford. Probably, the crowns of the Hebrew kings themselves were not materially different. Sir Harford Jones, who was a good judge of jewelry, and had an opportunity of examining the Persian regalia at leisure, says, that it is excessively heavy; and in the account which he gives of his audience with the king, he relates, that after leaving the audience chamber, he happened to look back, and saw the king lifting the crown from his head, as if anxious to relieve himself of its great weight. This may remind us of the controversy respecting 1 Chronicles 20:2, where we are told that when David defeated the Ammonites, he took the crown of their king from off his head, and found it to weigh “a talent of gold,” and there were precious stones in it, and it was set upon David’s head. This weight seems too great to be possible, and some have suggested that the value was that of a talent of gold, forgetting that gold did not till very long after that time become a standard of value.
Others suppose that the crown was not worn, but only held or suspended over the head of the king on great occasions. This is possible, we know from ancient authors that some such a custom did exist; but from the present instance we see that crowns of great weight are even now worn by eastern kings for a short time, on occasions of high ceremony. Sir Harford Jones attributes much of the weight of this particular crown to the massive character of the workmanship, and thinks it might be greatly diminished were the jewels that composed part of it reset by European workmen. He informs us that many of the stones are of very large size, but states that these, generally speaking, are more or less affected by imperfections, either in the water, color, or by flaws. But, he adds, “there are quantities, that is from twenty to forty carats, which are, perhaps, the finest specimens in the world. The pearls employed round the edge of the crown, if their number be considered, are quite wonderful, and may certainly be pronounced unmatchable. The shield, the dagger, the sword, and the mace, correspond in value, beauty, and richness of display with the crown. On state occasions, such as the audience of ambassadors, here the shield, the mace, and the sword, are borne beside the takht or throne, on which the shah sits, by three of the handsomest Georgian gholams, whose dresses on this occasion glitter with gold and precious stones.”
After speaking of the armlets, which we have sufficiently noticed, he says, “Among the others, I was particularly struck with what I know not how to give the reader an idea of but by calling it the king’s tippet, as it is a covering for part of his back, his shoulders, and his arms, which is only used on the very highest occasions. It is a piece of pearl work, of the most beautiful pattern; the pearls are worked on velvet, but they stand so close together that little, if any, of the velvet is visible. It took me an hour to examine this single article, which I have no fear in saying cannot be matched in the world. The tassel, which, on such occasions, is appended to the state dagger, is formed of pearls of the most uncommon size and beauty; and the emerald, which forms the top of the tassel, is, perhaps, the largest perfect one in the world.” There is no doubt that so costly a collection of jewels does not exist elsewhere.
Sir Harford says, that for some days after having examined them, he attempted to make an estimate of their value, but he got so much confused in the recollection of their weight, and the allowances to be made in some of them for the imperfection of water and color, that he gave it up as impossible. He thinks, however, that he should not much mislead, if on a moderate, perhaps a low calculation, their value cannot be less than fifteen millions of our money! Startling as this statement of the value of “the peculiar treasure of kings” may be to the reader, he must be told that the crown jewels of Persia are in general estimated at a much higher rate. In reference to the statement, that when the king made his appearance, the whole assembly bowed their heads till he had taken his place on the throne, Mr. Morier is, we think, probably right in supposing that the manner in which the Persians bow to their king is the same as that in which David bowed to Saul, when he “stooped with his face to the earth, and bowed himself,” 1 Samuel 24:8; that is, not touching the earth with the face, but bowing with the body at right angles, the hands placed on the knees, and the legs somewhat asunder. It is only on remarkable occasions that the prostration of the Rouee Zemeen (the face to the earth) is made, which must be the falling “on the face to the earth,” and worshiping, as Joshua did, Joshua 5:14. The first day’s ceremony of the Nurooz has afforded occasion for these remarks; for the description of the ceremonies of another great day of that festival we must be indebted to Mr. Morier. The particulars well deserve attention, from the obvious antiquity of the usages which they embody, as represented not only in the sculptures of Persepolis, but in the tombs and temples of Egypt. The following are the words of Mr. Morier:—“The first ceremony was the introduction of the presents from the different provinces. That from Prince Hossein Ali Meerza, governor of Shiraz, came first. The master of the ceremonies walked up, having with him the conductor of the present, and an attendant, who, when the name and titles of the donor had been proclaimed, read aloud from a paper a list of the articles. The present from prince Hossein Ali consisted of a very long train of large trays, placed on men’s heads, on which were shawls, stuffs, pearls, etc.; then many trays, filled with sugar and sweetmeats; after that, many mules, laden with fruit. The next present was from Mohammed Ali Khan, prince of Hamadan. He was the eldest born of the king’s sons, but he had been deprived by his father of the succession, because his mother, a Georgian slave, was of an extraction less noble than that of the mothers of the younger princes. This present accorded with the character which is assigned to him; it consisted of pistols and spears, a string of one hundred camels, and as many mules. After this, came the present from the prince of Yezd, another of the king’s sons, which consisted of shawls and the silken stuffs, the manufacture of his own town. Then followed that of the prince of Meshed. The last and most valuable was that from the Hajee Mohammed Hossein Khan, Ameen-ed-doulah. It consisted of fifty mules, each covered with a fine cashmere shawl, and each carrying a load of a thousand tomans. The other offerings had been lodged in the Sandeck Khoneh. This was conveyed in a different direction to the treasury. Each present, like the first, contained a portion of sugar and sweetmeats.” This display, striking as it is, must be inconsiderable, compared with that which was made by the presentation of the products of “an hundred and seven-and-twenty provinces, from India even unto Ethiopia,” Esther 1:1, over which the ancient kings ruled, brought by men in the various costumes and complexions which these different regions offered. It is the habit of the Orientals, on many occasions, to make the greatest possible display of such offerings, by distributing them among a large number of bearers. We see this here; for the last-mentioned present, we observe fifty mules employed conveying a quantity of gold coin which a quarter of the number might have carried without inconvenience. This consideration may enable us to assign a not too inordinate proportion to the “forty camels’ burden” of presents which the sick king of Damascus sent to the prophet Elisha, 2 Kings 8:9. So important to the dignity of the crown is the extent and magnificence of this display considered, that it used to be hinted, as we remember in Persia, that when the governors of provinces did not send a sufficiently large amount of costly offerings, the king was in the habit of swelling the display from his own stores and treasures. In fact, in this very case, Sir Harford Jones declares a strong suspicion that the king lent out for the occasion most of the gold which formed the magnificent offering of Hajee Mohammed Hossein Khan. The whole matter is replete with Scriptural suggestions. It reminds us of the “present” which the Israelites sent by Ehud, at the head of many bearers, to their corpulent master, “Eglon, king of Moab,” Judges 3:17-18. It suggests the kind of state with which Solomon received the same sort of “presents” from the neighboring tributary kings, who “brought every man his present, vessels of silver, and vessels of gold, and raiment, harness, and spices, horses, and mules, a rate year by year,” 2 Chronicles 9:24; and it would seem that the prophetic imagery, which describes the kings and peoples of the earth as bringing their offerings and tributes to the foot of the Messiah’s throne, is drawn from this characteristic of imperial power in the east.
“Thy rams are there, Nebaioth, and the flocks of Kedar there; The looms of Ormus, and the mines of Ind, And Saba’s spicy groves, pay tribute there.” As far as possible, it is endeavored and expected that the presents should consist of the choicest products or manufactures of the province from which they come. Hence, the variety of the offerings, which renders them the more acceptable. Much pains has been bestowed in deciphering the nature of the gifts which the Persepolitan sculptures represent. It is seen that they may be ranged under certain general classes, consisting either of vessels of various forms and kinds, such as are now generally used in the east, and were, probably, carried full of spices and other precious commodities; or different articles of dress, such as shawls, robes, or furs; or ornaments, for instance, armlets (for such appear to be the little snakes carried by some of the figures), and necklaces, or various implements, with the exception of weapons.
Others again carry esteemed fruits, of different kinds, especially in the shape of conserves, as appear by the form of the vessel, to resemble those in which such things are still usually kept in the east. Some men are seen leading up different animals—horses, camels, oxen, mules, sheep, and even wild asses, tamed, and led by an halter. The horse is sometimes figured single, sometimes yoked with another in a car. Each animal is evidently meant to denote a number of the same kind. Niebuhr asserts, that the remains of the uppermost row of figures contain that of a lioness, which, as well as the rest, is perfectly consistent with the manners and usages of the Orientals, and especially of the Persians, among whom wild animals, no less than tame, were customary presents to their kings. The former were kept in their parks for the chase, or even as curiosities; the latter were used to breed from, as well as for show. In some of the ancient satrapies, as that of Cilicia, a certain number of horses made part of the yearly tribute; and that the other articles described are still presented as offerings, is shown by the passage which has been quoted from Morier, with reference to the offerings of the Nurooz. The celebrations of that festival, besides those which have been described and illustrated, consist of various sports and races, the description of which would be of no interest to our readers.
Another occasion on which the king of Persia appears in much state, is on giving audience to foreign ambassadors. We possess descriptions of the first audience of most of our own ambassadors to the court of Persia. For some time, the ceremonial of these interviews has been settled by the precedent of the former examples. But these earlier occasions were signalized by much previous negotiation and discussion—the object on the Persian side being to induce the ambassador to be content with the least possible measure of respectful observance, and thereby to exalt the glory of the great king. It was much the same as in China, where so much pains was taken to make our ambassadors appear as tribute-bearers, and to extort from them some ceremonial acknowledgment of that character; while, on the English side, every pretension of the kind was strictly resisted, and the utmost consideration, consistent with respect for a sovereign presence, exacted. It is but just to the Persians to say, that they never expected any personal humiliation, as the Chinese demanded, and were, in the end, content that our envoys should appear before the shah with the same marks of respect as they would show to their own sovereign.
It is amusing to persons at home to read of the profound gravity and earnestness with which our envoys contended for the most trifling points of etiquette. But they were men who knew the Persian character well, and they were sensible that it was not for them to make light of matters to which the Persians themselves attached the most solemn importance, and that the slightest abatement of their claims to ceremonial consideration would have been regarded as a political triumph, and would have materially impaired their official respectability and influence. Therefore, how near the envoy should approach the royal presence—what should be the rank of his introducer—in, what kind of dress he should appear—and other points of the like nature, were debated between the king’s ministers and the ambassador as matters of the gravest importance, and were not settled without protracted negotiation and controversy.
Sir Harford Jones had to resist a pretension to invest him with a Persian robe of honor, in which to appear before the king, which may suggest a thought of “the wedding garment,” in the parable of the marriage of the king’s son. An attempt was made to persuade Sir John Malcolm to appear in the dress worn by Englishmen during the reign of Elizabeth. A picture, supposed to be of Sir Anthony Shirley, in the full dress of that period, was produced; and this, from the immutability of their own customs, they innocently supposed to be still the dress in which a European should appear before a king. When the prime-minister was set right on this point, and was made acquainted with the great changes which our customs of dress were continually undergoing, he said, “Well, well; our manners and habits are so different from yours on this point, that the mistake is not surprising; and though I do not altogether like a usage that makes children laugh at the garments of their grandfathers, every country has a right to its own customs, and to these its representatives should adhere.”
One ceremonial is so important as a mark of even common respect in the eyes of the Persians, though adverse to our own customs, that it could not be dispensed with, and our own ambassadors have generally had the good sense to submit to it. The Persians, when they enter any room, cast off their shoes or slippers, and leave them at the entrance, and remain in the woolen socks which they habitually wear, but, at royal audiences, in unsoled boots of red cloth, which are not used on any other occasion. This is first a matter of cleanliness; for, as they sit upon the floor, and eat from it, to tread with soiled shoes upon their carpets makes the same impression upon the Persians which we should experience were a visitor of our own to insist in treading upon our chairs and dining-tables. It is also considered a mark of civility and respect, to which they attach the same meaning as we do to the removal of our hats. In ordinary cases, it is sufficient to remove the slippers on entering a room; but, in reference to the king, whose person is regarded as giving a kind of sanctity to the place, and into the same room with whom hardly any one is admitted, it is expected that they should be cast off before reaching the spot where the king first becomes visible. Moses at the burning bush, and Joshua in the presence of “the captain of the Lord’s host,” were commanded to remove the shoes from their feet, because they stood on “holy ground.” This intimates that among the Hebrews, also, the removal of the shoes was a mark of reverence and respect; but the instances show that it was a peculiar token of respect for the Divine presence. There are other allusions, however, which show that the usage was common; such as those in which John the Baptist declares himself unworthy to “stoop down and unloose,” or “to bear,” the shoes of Jesus, which expressions are derived from the acts of a servant in assisting his master to remove his shoes, and in taking charge of them when they are removed, on the occasions to which we have adverted. With these explanations, we may proceed to give an account of the first audience of an ambassador. It is to be noted, that the king and his ministers are anxious that the procession to the palace on such occasions should be as imposing and stately as possible, as the sovereign is considered to be honored in the eyes of his people by the magnificence which his visitors display. The best account of an approach to the audience is that given by Sir John Malcolm of his own embassy. It may afford some idea of the kind of sights with which the people of Jerusalem were often entertained during the reign of Solomon, when the princes and ambassadors of many lands came to render their tributes to that illustrious king, or to cultivate his friendship. And that Solomon’s own court assumed on such occasions a state of the same kind as that of the Persian kings, is clear from the admiration with which the queen of Sheba regarded “the attendance of his ministers, and their apparel,” 1 Kings 10:5.
“Everything being arranged, we proceeded towards the ‘threshold of the world’s glory,’ on the morning of the sixteenth of November, 1800. We were all dressed in our best attire. A crowd had assembled near the house of Hajee Ibrahim, and the streets were filled with gazers at the strangers; the infantry part of the escort, with their drums and fifes, and all the Hindostanee public servants, in scarlet and gold, preceded the elchee (ambassador), who rode a beautiful Arabian horse, richly caparisoned, but entirely in the English style; he was followed by the gentlemen of his suite, and his escort of cavalry.
“When we came within half a mile of the palace, all was silence and order. It was the state of Asia with the discipline of Europe. We passed through rows of men and horses, and even the latter appeared as if afraid to shake their heads. Many persons whom we saw in the first square of the citadel, before we entered the palace, were richly dressed, and some of the horses were decked out with bridles, saddles, and trappings of great value; but it was not until we had passed the last gate of the palace, and came into the garden in front of the king’s hall of audience—a highly ornamented and, spacious building—that we could form any idea of the splendor of the Persian Court. A canal flowed in the center of the garden, which supplied a number of fountains, to the right and left of which were broad paved walks, and beyond these were rows of trees. Between the trees and the high walls encircling the palace files of matchlock men were drawn up, and within the avenues, from the gate to the hall of audience, all the princes, nobles, courtiers, and officers of state, were marshaled in separate lines, according to their rank, from the lowest officer of the king’s guard, who occupied the place nearest the entrance, to the heir-apparent, Abbas Meerza, who stood on the right of his brothers, and within a few paces of the throne.
“There was not one person in all this array who had not a gold-hilted sword, a cashmere shawl around his cap, and another around his waist. Many of the princes and nobles were magnificently dressed, but all was forgotten as soon as the eye rested on the king. He appeared to be above the middle size, his age little more than thirty, his complexion rather fair; his features were regular and fine, with an expression denoting quickness and intelligence. His beard attracted much of our attention; it was full, black, and glossy, and flowed to his middle. His dress baffled all description. The ground of his robes was white; but he was so covered with jewels of an extraordinary size, and their splendor, from his being seated where the rays of the sun played upon them, was so dazzling, that it was impossible to distinguish the minute parts which combined to give such amazing brilliancy to his whole figure.” The ceremonies of an audience itself are, however, better indicated in the account which Sir William Ouseley gives of his brother, Sir Gore Ouseley’s, reception, and to that we recur. From this account, it seems that the ambassador and his suite, previously to being ushered into the presence, were detained in a small room, where they met some great men of the Persian court, were served with coffee and kaleons[18] and waited till it was announced that the king was on the throne, and ready to receive them. “We then passed through two or three courts, and some long passages, containing soldiers and attendants, dressed in an extraordinary manner, their clothes being spotted over with gold pieces of money, sequins and ducats, and many wore helmets of uncommon appearance. We at last entered the building in which was the hall of audience; and, having shaken off our slippers, went in about twenty yards, making profound obeisances, as instructed by our conductors, at certain intervals from the spot where first it was possible that the king should discern us; then, forming a line near the hawz, or reservoir, in front of the presence-chamber, we perceived his majesty seated on the takht-i-taous, or ‘peacock throne;’ and when the master of the ceremonies announced the English embassy, we distinctly heard the usual ‘khushamedid,’ or ‘welcome,’ from the royal lips.
“Having entered the hall of audience, the ambassador took his seat on a chair, placed at the distance of about two yards from the door, and five or six from the throne, in a direction almost diagonal, but rose after two or three minutes, and severally presented us; an office which, as we understood, the viziers (ministers) had hitherto insisted on performing. As each gentleman was introduced by name, the monarch said something highly flattering and gracious, with a courtly and dignified air. We then arranged ourselves in a row behind the chair, immediately near which the ambassador continued to stand during the remainder of the interview.
“Next the throne, which occupied a corner—not the center—of the room, were two little princes, five, or perhaps six years old, who stood immovable as statues the whole time of audience, displaying a gravity of demeanor and solemnity of countenance which would have become the most aged and venerable of their father’s ministers. More remote from the throne, but in the same line, were five other princes, the eldest and tallest being next, at an interval of ten yards, to the little boys above mentioned, to whom succeeded the others, according to age and size, the royal rank of princes ending in one about eight or nine years of age.
“On the same side, but in a recess formed by large windows, appeared three mostowfies, or secretaries; these were on our left as we stood behind the ambassador’s chair, while on our right, near the door, were four of the principal ministers. Beyond them, and extending towards the left side of the room, was a row of five of six officers, among whom one held a most beautiful crown, or taje, apparently not inferior in the luster of its jewels to that with which the monarch’s head was so magnificently decorated; another of these officers bore in his hands the scimitar of state; a third held the royal bow in its case; and one a golden tray, or dish, filled with diamonds and different precious stones, of wonderful size and dazzling brilliancy. Of the king’s dress, I could perceive that the color was scarlet, but to ascertain exactly the materials would have been difficult, from the profusion of large pearls that covered it in various places, and the multiplicity of jewels that sparkled all around, for the golden throne seemed studded at the sides with precious stones of every possible tint, and the back resembled a sun of glory, of which the radiation was imitated by diamonds, garnets, emeralds, and rubies. Of such, also, was chiefly composed the monarch’s ample and most splendid crown, and the two figures of birds that ornamented the throne, one perched on each of its beautifully enameled shoulders.
“We remained in the royal presence about twenty minutes, during which Futteh Ali Shah conversed most graciously with the ambassador; and having received from a kneeling servant the state kaleon, rich in the luster of jewels, he inhaled its smoke but a moment, and gave back this precious instrument of Asiatic luxury. The room in which he sat was spacious and handsome, disfigured, however, by glaring oil paintings, of considerable size and very mean execution: two large English mirrors contributed much to its embellishment. We retired, bowing at certain intervals towards the throne, on our return through the garden, while there remained a possibility of our being seen by the king; then resuming our high-heeled slippers, we walked along courts and passages, and under narrow door-ways, crowded with servants, guards, and officers of the palace, and great khans, or lords. Some men, whose office I neglected to inquire, held each in his hand a scepter, or slender wand, nearly four feet long, and apparently of gold enameled green, with the figure of a bird at top, as large as a real sparrow, and made of emeralds, rubies, and other jewels.” The “peacock throne,” mentioned in this extract, is different from that noticed in the account of the Nurooz. In fact, the Persian king has an assortment of thrones, each with a distinguishing name. But of these the peacock throne is the most splendid; and there is, probably, not in the world any other throne so costly and magnificent. Like the armlets and much of the other splendid articles of the Persian regalia, it is of the spoils brought from India by Nadir Shah. The figures of peacocks, in application to a throne, may bring to mind Solomon’s similar use of lions, which, again, are actually figured in some representations of Egyptian thrones. Mr. Morier discovers other analogies, not, indeed, as to the peacock throne, but another much like it, but without the birds, and with less gorgeous jewelry, which the king often uses. He says, “The throne upon which the king sat was ascended by steps, upon which were painted dragons. It is surrounded with a balustrade, and the whole of it, which is overlaid with fine gold, beautifully enameled, we are told cost one hundred thousand tomans. The throne of Solomon was ascended by steps; there were stags on each side the sitting-place, and, what is its principal feature of resemblance, it was overlaid with pure gold,” 2 Chronicles 9:17-18. The practice of providing a chair for European ambassadors has led to some alteration as to the manner in which the king presents himself to their notice. It seemed to infringe upon the king’s dignity that his seat should be lower than theirs; and, therefore, the late king used a chair of state on such occasions. This is a sacrifice of comfort to dignity; for our posture of sitting in a chair, which throws the weight of the body upon the hams, is almost as distressing to a Persian, as the Persian mode of kneeling, and then sitting back upon the heels, is to a European. Nevertheless, although this seems an innovation, it is, in fact, a revival of an ancient Persian practice; for in the ancient sculptures, representing kings of Scriptural times, seated upon their thrones, the throne is a straight-backed and high arm-chair, not unlike those which were, at the beginning of the last century, used in England, and which are here again coming into use. The remarks of Sir William Ouseley on the staid demeanor of the little princes deserve attention. The truth is, that these young members of the royal family, and even the sons of nobles, are trained almost from the cradle into the proper observances of public life; and a mere child will, on public occasions, act with gravity, dignity, and manliness, most surprising to those to whom this experience is new. We have been struck with admiration in witnessing the inimitable propriety and fitness with which a mere boy has received visitors of distinction in the absence of his father, acting in all respects as his father would have done, and using the same delicately-shaded phrases of welcome and inquiry which he would have used. And this is no light matter, as the Persian language of ceremony abounds in phrases, particular words of which must have varied synonyms according to the rank of the person addressed. It made us cease to wonder at the dignified and becoming manner in which such a child as Joash seems to have gone through the trying ceremonies of an unusually stately coronation, at the early age of seven years, 2 Kings 11. The high-priest, when he saw that the fit time was come, appears to have had no misgivings as to the child’s ability to observe the responsible solemnities of that great day.