Repentance

In general, is sorrow for any thing past. In theology it signifies that sorrow for sin which produces newness of life. The Greek word most frequently used in the New Testament for repentance properly denotes an afterthought, or the soul recollecting its own actings; and that in such a manner as to produce sorrow in the review, and a desire of amendment. Another word also is used which signifies anxiety or uneasiness upon the consideration of what is done. There are, however, various kinds or repentance; as,

1. A natural repentance, or what is merely the effect of natural conscience.

2. A national repentance, such as the Jews in Babylon were called unto; to which temporal blessings were promised, Eze 18:1-32; Eze 19:1-14; Eze 20:1-49; Eze 21:1-32; Eze 22:1-31; Eze 23:1-49; Eze 24:1-27; Eze 25:1-17; Eze 26:1-21; Eze 27:1-36; Eze 28:1-26; Eze 29:1-21; Eze 30:1-26; Eze 31:1-18; Eze 32:1-30.

3. An External repentance, or an outward humiliation for sin, as in the case of Ahab.

4. A hypocritical repentance, as represented in Ephraim, Hos 7:16.

5. A legal repentance, which is a mere work of the law, and the effect of convictions of sin by it which in time wear off, and come to nothing.

6. an evangelical repentance, which consists in conviction of sin; sorrow for it; confession of it; hatred to it; and renunciation of it. A legal and evangelical repentance are distinguished thus:

1. A legal repentance flows only from a sense of danger and fear of wrath; but an evangelical repentance is a true mourning for sin, and an earnest desire of deliverance from it.

2. A legal repentance flows from unbelief, but evangelical is always the fruit and consequence of a saving faith.

3. A legal repentance flows from an aversion to God and to his holy law, but an evangelical from love to both.

4. A legal repentance ordinarily flows from discouragement and despondency, but evangelical from encouraging hope.

5. A legal repentance is temporary, but evangelical is the daily exercise of the true Christian.

6. A legal repentance does at most produce only a partial and external reformation, but an evangelical is a total change of heart and life. The author of true repentance is God, Act 5:31. The subjects of it are sinners, since none but those who have sinned can repent. The means of repentance is the word, and the ministers of it; yet sometimes consideration, sanctified afflictions, conversation, &c. have been the instruments of repentance. The blessings connected with repentance are, pardon, peace, and everlasting life, Act 11:18.

The time of repentance is the present life, Isa 55:6. Ecc 9:5. the evidences of repentance are, faith, humility, prayer, and obedience, Zec 12:10. The necessity of repentance appears evident from the evil of sin; the misery it involves us in here; the commands given us to repent in God’s word; the promises made to the penitent; and the absolute incapability of enjoying God here or hereafter without it.

See Dickinson’s Letters, let. 9; Dr. Owen on the 130th Psalm; Gill’sBody of Divinity, article Repentance; Ridgley’s Body of Divinity, question 76; Davies’s Sermons, ser. 44. vol. 3:; Case’s Sermons, ser. 4; Whitefield’s Sermons; Saurin’s Sermons, ser. 9. vol. 3: Robinson’s translation; Scott’s Treatise on Repentance.

This, in idea, is supposed to be perfectly understood by every one; but in reality very few have a true scriptural apprehension of it. Re pentance, like faith, is the sole gift of God. The act itself is so impossible to be assumed or taken up by any, that it is equally easy to alter the colour of the hair, or the features of the countenance, as to change the heart. Jesus, it is said, (Acts v. 31.) "Is exalted a Prince and a Saviour, for to give repentance to Israel and forgiveness of sins." What therefore Christ gives cannot be the work or themerit of man. There may be, and there often is, a false repentance, which men of no religion may possess, but which is as distinguishable from true repentance as darkness from light, when the principles of both are analyzed. False repentance is that which springs from a sorrow for the consequences, not the causes of sin. True repentance is that which flows from the consciousness of the sin itself. The man of godly sorrow sorrows for having offended God. The man of worldly sorrow sorrows that his sin hath broughtpunishment. The one is the effect of fear; the other of love. The repentance for the consequence of sin goes no further than as it dreads the punishment: the repentance for the cause of sin becomes the continued gracious sorrow of the heart. These observations may be sufficient to mark the very different features of both, and under grace enable any one to understand the vast distinction.

is sometimes used generally for a change of mind, and an earnest wishing that something were undone that has been done. Esau found no place for repentance, though he sought it carefully with tears; he could not move his father Isaac to repent of what he had done, or to recall the blessing from Jacob and confer it on himself, Heb 12:17; Mat 3:2; Mat 4:17. Taken in a religious sense it signifies conviction of sin and sorrow for it. But there is,

1. A partial or worldly repentance, wherein one is grieved for and turns from his sin, merely on account of the hurt it has done, or is likely to do, him; so a malefactor, who still loves his sin, repents of doing it, because it brings him to punishment.

2. An evangelical repentance, which is a godly sorrow wrought in the heart of a sinful person by the word and Spirit of God, whereby, from a sense of his sin, as offensive to God, and defiling and endangering to his own soul, and from an apprehension of the mercy of God in Christ, he, with grief and hatred of all his known sins, turns from them to God, as his Saviour and Lord. This is called “repentance toward God,” as therein we turn from sin to him; and “repentance unto life;” as it leads to spiritual life, and is the first step to eternal life, Mat 3:2; Act 3:19; Act 11:18; Act 20:12. God himself is said to repent, but this can only be understood of his altering his conduct towards his creatures, either in the bestowing of good or the infliction of evil: which change in the divine conduct is founded on a change in his creatures; and thus, speaking after the manner of men, God is said to repent.

A change of mind, accompanied with regret and sorrow for something done, and an earnest wish that it was undone. Such was the repentance of Juda, Mat 27:3 ; and so it is said that Esau found "no place of repentance" in his father Isaac, although he sought it with tears, Heb 12:17 ; that is, Isaac would not change what he had done, and revoke the blessing given to Jacob, Gen 27:1-46 . God is sometimes said to "repent" of something he had done, Gen 6:6 Jon 3:9,10 ; not that he could wish it undone, but that in his providence such a change of course took place as among men would be ascribed to a change of mind. But the true gospel repentance, or "repentance unto life," is sorrow for sin, grief for having committed it, and a turning away from it with abhorrence, accompanied with sincere endeavors, in reliance on God’s grace and the influences of the Holy Spirit, to live in humble and holy obedience to the commands and will of God. This is that repentance which always accompanies true faith, and to which is promised the free forgiveness of sin through the merits of Jesus Christ, Mat 4:17 Mal 3:19 11:18 20:12.\par

The previous chapters of this book have been occupied with discussion on the names, and consequently on the nature and capacities, of God and of man, and also on the varied aspects of human sin. Attention is now to be called to some of the sacred words used to express the moral or spiritual process whereby man is restored to his true position. Two ideas are set forth in the O.T., and adopted in the N.T., in this connection; the one marks the bringing of a man to himself, the other the bringing of a man to God; the one is ordinarily designated repentance, the other conversion.

Very various views have been held with respect to the meaning of the word repentance. Some take it to indicate a change of heart or disposition, others a change of mind or thought (the Sinnesänderung of the Berlenburger Bible), others a change of aim or purpose, and others a change of life or conduct. With the exception of three passages--namely, 1Ki 8:47, Eze 14:6, and Eze 18:30 (in which the Hebrew is Shuv [See below, § 3.] (שׁוב), and the Greek ἐπιστρέφω)--the English word repent is used in the A. V. to represent a form of the Hebrew Nacham (נחם), from which the name of the prophet Nahum is derived. The original meaning of this word is generally understood to be to draw a deep breath, and this is taken as the physical mode of giving expression to a deep feeling, either of relief or sorrow. The one aspect of Nacham is represented by the Greek παρακάλεισθαι, the other by μετανοέιν and μεταμέλεσθαι.

Nacham is rendered by μετανοέιν in the following passages: 1Sa 15:29, ’The Strength of Israel will not lie nor repent: for he is not a man, that he should repent;’ Jer 4:28, ’I have purposed it, and will not repent;’ Jer 18:8, ’If that nation against whom I have pronounced turn from their evil, I will repent of the evil that I thought to do unto them’ (compare verse 10, where we read, ’If it do evil in my sight, that it obey not my voice, then I will repent of the good wherewith I said I would benefit them’); Joe 2:13-14, ’The Lord . repenteth him of the evil. Who knoweth if he will return and repent;’ Amo 7:3; Amo 7:6, ’The Lord repented for this. It shall not be, saith the Lord;’ Jon 3:10, ’God repented of the evil that he had said he would do unto them; and he did it not;’ see also 4:2; Zec 8:14,’I repented not.’

All these passages refer to God’s repentance; the two which remain refer to man’s: Jer 8:6, ’No man repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have I done?’ Jer 31:19, ’Surely after that I was turned, I repented; and after that I was instructed, I smote up on my thigh.’

The LXX has μεταμέλομαι for Nacham in the following passages: Gen 6:7, ’It repenteth me that I have made them;’ 1Sa 15:11, ’It repenteth me that I have set up Saul to be king’ (see also verse 35); 1Ch 21:15, ’The Lord beheld, and he repented him of the evil, and said to the angel that destroyed, It is enough, stay now thine hand;’ Psa 106:45, ’He remembered for them his covenant, and repented according to the multitude of his mercies;’ Psa 110:4, ’The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent;’ Jer 20:16, ’Let that man be as the cities which the Lord overthrew, and repented not;’ Hos 11:8, ’Mine heart is turned with in me, my repentings are kindled together.’

In the following passages this Greek word is used in the LXX of man’s repentance: Exo 13:17, ’Lest peradventure the people repent when they see war, and they return to Egypt;’ Eze 14:22, ’Ye shall repent (A.V. be comforted) concerning the evil that I have brought up on Jerusalem.’

It is evident, from a consideration of these passages, that when we approach the subject of repentance in the N.T., we must not tie it down too strictly, either to one formal process, or to one set time in a man’s life, but must understand by it such a state of deep feeling as leads to a change or amendment of life. The etymology and the classical usage of the words μετανοέιν and μεταμέλεσθαιmust give way before the fact that these words were used by Greek-speaking Jews, as representatives of the passive and reflexive voices of Nacham. It is hard indeed to find one expression in any language which can adequately represent the complex emotions implied by the word. When the word is used with reference to God, there is implied an idea of change, and perhaps of sorrow, but not the consciousness of wrong-doing. When it is used with reference to man, sorrow arises from a sense of sin, a conviction of wrong-doing in its varied aspects fills the heart with bitterness, and change of purpose and of the outward life ensue; also an undercurrent of relief accompanies the sorrow, for the penitent draws a deep breat has the sin, which has been leading him astray, shows itself to him in its true colours, and gives way before the announcement of mercy.

There is a remarkable tract on Penitence [An edition of this tract, with a Latin translation by Mr. Clavering, was published in Oxford in 1705.] written by Moses Maimonides, in which the subject is treated, not as a matter of feeling, but of practice. Penitence is described as the condition of a man who, having once fallen into a sin, now abstains from it, although the inducements to return to it are as strong as ever. The Hebrew word which the writer adopts to represent this process is a noun derived from shuvto turn. But the first open step in this change is confession, which is to be expressed in the following form of words: ’O Lord, I have sinned; I have done wrong, and have been a transgress or before Thee, and I have done such and such things; behold, I am sorry (Nacham), and am ashamed because of my misdeeds, and I will never commit any such offenses again.’ It is neither sorrow without change, nor change without sorrow, but it is such a deep feeling of sorrow as gives rise to a determination to change, or, as the English Church Catechism has it, ’repentance whereby we forsake sin.’

The learned Rosenmüller defines repentance as the admission of wrong-doing followed by grief and leading to a wiser course: ’Post factum sapere, et de errore admisso ita dolere ut sapias.’ [Schol N. T.] He holds to the Latin resipiscere as the best rendering of the word; and this view has been very common since the days of Beza, from whom Rosenmüller takes his definition almost word for word. The distinction between μεταμέλεια, regret, and μετάνοια, reconsideration, which Beza held, must not be pressed very far; because, as we have seen, these words are used in almost the same sense in the LXX. [The opinion here advanced has the support of Elsner. See also Archbishop Trench’s discussions on the word in his work on the ’Synonyms of the N. T.’ he is inclined to draw out the distinction between the two words above named but in his work on the ’Authorised Version’ he rather disclaims Beza’s resipiscentia.] Besides, as a matter of fact, the noun μεταμέλειαdoes not occur in the N.T., and the verb μεταμέλεσθαιfalls into the background. It is once used with respect to God, viz in Heb 7:21, which is quoted from Psa 110:4; and four times of man, viz in Mat 21:29; Mat 21:32; Mat 27:3; 2Co 7:8. See the negative form in Rom 11:29; 2Co 7:10.

The objections to the Latin word Poenitentia as a rendering of μετάνοιαwere more forcibly expressed by Erasmus in his Annotations. But he wrote without at all taking into consideration the Hebrew and Judaeo-Greek usage, whence we derive the word μετάνοια. Because in his days the Roman sacrament of penance, i.e. satisfaction for sins committed after baptism, was called by the same name as penitence, or sorrow for sins committed either before or after baptism, he thought that some other word should be adopted. He called Poenitentia a barbarism and a solecism, and to him must be given the credit of pressing up on his contemporaries the word resipiscentia, which had previously been adopted by Lactantius, as the better of the two. Luc as Brugensis, however, well replies that Poenitentia had a far wider meaning amongst Latin ecclesiastical writers than was usually supposed; it implied not only sorrow, but also a change for the better. Whilst, on the other hand, μετάνοια had a wider meaning than change; for it included sorrow, and compunction of heart.

In the Decrees of the Council of Trent, a careful distinction is drawn between the Poenitentiawhich precedes baptism, and that which follows it. The former is general, and consists of a sorrow for sin with a renunciation of wickedness. Here we have the complex idea of repentance evidently implied in the usage of the word, though not in its etymology. The Poenitentiawhich follows after baptism is not efficacious, according to the theory of the Church of Rome, without confession followed by sacerdotal absolution. [Satisfaction, according to the Tridentine theology, consists of certain acts of self-denial, whether corporal suffering or otherwise, imposed on the penitent according to the judgment of the priest and the rules of the Church, for the purpose of bringing men into greater conformity with Christ; because ’If we suffer with him, we shall also be glorified together.’ These acts are considered to represent the ’fruits meet for repentence,’ and to be accepted by God through Christ.]

When Mart in Luther made his first translation of the N.T., he adopted the phrase bessert euch, ’better yourselves’ (a phrase answering to ’amend your ways’) as a rendering for μετανοείτε, repent; but after a few years he returned to the customary phrase of the country, thut Busse, a phrase answering to Do penance or Be penitent. Perhaps he was moved to this change by the feeling that moral amendment in the abstract was no equivalent for repentance, and tended rather to mislead in seven passages he has Reue, regret; thus the ’repentance not to be repented of’ (Vulg. poenitentiam stabilem) is rendered ’eine Reue, die Niem and gereuet,’ a regret which no man regrets.

The idea conveyed in this term is of great importance from the fact of its application not only to man but to God, showing how God, in His government of the earth, is pleased to express His own sense of events taking place upon it. This does not clash with His omniscience. There are two senses in which repentance on the part of God is spoken of.

1. As to His own creation or appointment of objects that fail to answer to His glory. He repented that He had made man on the earth, and that He had set up Saul as king of Israel. Gen 6:6-7; 1Sa 15:11; 1Sa 15:35

2. As to punishment which He has threatened, or blessing He has promised. When Israel turned from their evil ways and sought God, He often repented of the punishment He had meditated. 2Sa 24:16, etc. On the other hand, the promises to bless Israel when in the land were made conditionally on their obedience, so that God would, if they did evil, turn from or repent of the good that He had said He would do, either to Israel or in fact to any nation. Jer 18:8-10. He would alter the order of His dealings towards them, and as to Israel He said, "I am weary with repenting." Jer 15:6. In all this the responsibility of man is concerned, as well as the divine government.

But the unconditional promises of God, as made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, are not subject to repentance. "The gifts and calling of God are without repentance." Rom 11:29. "God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it?" Num 23:19; 1Sa 15:29; Mal 3:6. And this must hold good in regard to every purpose of His will.

As regards man, repentance is the necessary precursor of his experience of grace on the part of God. Two motives for repentance are presented in scripture: the goodness of God which leads to repentance (Rom 2:4) and coming judgement, on account of which God now commands all men to repent (Act 17:30-31); but it is distinctly of His grace and for His glory that this door of return to Him is granted (Act 11:18) in that He has approached man in grace and by His glad tidings, consequent on His righteousness having been secured in the death of Christ. Hence God’s testimony is "repentance toward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ." Act 20:21.

Repentance has been described as "a change of mind Godward that leads to a judgement of self and one’s acts." 1Ki 8:47; Eze 14:6; Mat 3:2; Mat 9:13; Luk 15:7; Act 20:21; 2Co 7:9-10; etc. This would not be possible but for the thought of mercy in God. It is the goodness of God that leads to repentance. Rom 2:4.

Repentance is also spoken of as a change of thought and action where there is no evil to repent of. 2Co 7:8.

A turning with sorrow from a past course or action

Jesus Christ Coming To Call Sinners To Repentance

Mat_9:11-13; Mar_2:16-17; Luk_5:30-32; Act_5:30-31.

Repenting

Eze_14:6; Eze_18:29-32; Mat_3:1-2; Mar_1:15; Act_2:38; Act_3:19; Act_17:29-30; Rev_2:5; Rev_2:16; Rev_3:19.

The LORD Giving Time For Sinners To Repent

2Pe_3:9.

The Reward For Not Repenting

Luk_13:1-5; Rev_2:1-5; Rev_2:12-16; Rev_2:18-23.

The Reward For Repenting

1Ki_8:43-50; Eze_18:27-32; Eze_33:11-20.

The Sinner That Repents

Luk_15:1-10.

What Leads You To Repentance

Rom_2:4.

What Works Repentance

2Co_7:10.

Who Baptized With The Baptism Of Repentance

Mat_3:1-11; Luk_3:2-3; Act_19:4.

REPENTANCE.—In Christ’s own life repentance has no place. The four Gospels contain no expression, direct or incidental, of any feeling of penitence or of regret for anything He ever did or left undone, for anything He ever said or left unsaid. He never prays for forgiveness. He never knows of a time when He was not in peace and harmony with God; He never speaks of coming into peace and harmony with God. Though He teaches insistently that all others must repent and become sons, and even then must pray for the forgiveness of their sins, yet He Himself knows nothing but that He is the Son of His Heavenly Father, and He never loses by any act the consciousness of the Father’s approval. See, further, art. Sinlessness.

1. Christ’s teaching on repentance.—In the teaching of Jesus the fundamental category was the Kingdom of God (βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ), i.e. the spiritual rule of God in the heart of a man or in the hearts of men. This βασιλεία simply means God’s authority established, God exercising His will and having His way, whether it be in a single human soul, or in a Church, or in a Christian community (as in the primitive Church of Pentecost), or in the Church universal, or in the world. God’s Kingdom has come, that is, His rule is established, when and where His will is done as it is supposed to be done ‘in heaven,’ that is, ideally, whether that be in a single heart or ‘on (the whole) earth.’

This enables us to understand why Jesus has so much to say about righteousness. Righteousness was another name for the fulfilling of the will of God; it was doing what God wanted done; it was the realizing of the rule of God. Hence men were called on to repent and become righteous. Repentance, as conceived and taught by Jesus, meant a change of the whole life, so as to subject it and to conform it to God, a radical and complete revolution of one’s view of God and attitude toward God. This involved a change of the whole of life in its inlook as well as in its outlook; a change, in short, of one’s self, one’s motives, aims, pursuits.

Jesus’ primary thought was of a change to. For His starting—point was God. Hence the burden of His message was God and righteousness. But this implies that there was something to change from. Men were to free their mind from one thing and to fix it on another. They were to exchange one habitual, fixed state of mind for another—for its opposite, namely, for one that recognized, preferred, hungered after and sought for righteousness as the fulfilment of the will of God, as the realization of the rule (Kingdom) of God.

What was it then that they were to change from? Naturally it was from that which was the opposite of righteousness, that which refuses the rule of God and excludes Him from life. In other words, it was from sin. In turning to God it was necessary, in the nature of the case, to turn from that which is opposed to God, from that state of mind which loves, chooses, enjoys sin, which is permeated and dominated by sin, and which brings about the inevitable consequence of living in the practice of sin. So that, while Jesus had much to say about righteousness, He had much to say, and inevitably, about sin. We are now better prepared to understand what He meant when He called on people to repent. Popularly, repentance is understood to be a sense of regret and self-abasement, looking to the forgiveness of the wrong-doings of the past. This is one part of repentance, but it is the least part. Sin lies deeper than the act. It is in the unrenewed, perverse nature behind the act. So repentance goes deeper than the act. Sin has its root in the inherent condition of man’s nature; repentance contemplates a change in this condition. And until this change is effected, sin will inevitably continue to rule. Repentance then, while it is a sense of regret and sorrow for the wrong-doings of the past, is far more. It is an agonizing desire, leading to an agonizing and persistent effort, to realize such a radical change in the state of the mind as will secure and ensure against wrong-doing in the future. Born of a realization, more or less clear and pungent, of our natural sinward tendency and of our hopeless inability to correct it or control it, it impels us to desire above all things and to seek before all things that change of mind and moral condition which will not only lead us to choose righteousness, but also enable us triumphantly to realize righteousness. Repentance goes to the root of the matter. The very word goes to the root of it. For what is μετάνοια but a ‘change of mind’? That this was the meaning of the word in the thought and intent of Jesus, the whole drift of His teaching implies. But it is specifically shown in those sayings of His which reveal His view of the inherent sinfulness of human nature: ‘If ye being evil’ (πονηροὶ ὄντες, Mat 7:11); ‘a corrupt tree cannot (οὐ δύναται, Mat 7:18) bring forth good fruit’; and that terse statement of the whole situation which in one epigrammatic sentence sums up all that St. Paul says in the seventh and eighth chapters of Romans: ‘That which is born of the flesh is flesh, and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit’ (Joh 3:6). It is what St. Paul calls ‘the mind of the flesh,’ and as good as calls the mind of sin (see Rom 7:17; Rom 7:20).

Repentance, as used in the Synoptic Gospels, covers, as a rule, the whole process of turning from sin to God (as in Luk 24:47). So that in the broad, comprehensive sense of the Synoptics, it includes faith, which is a part of the process, the last step of it. It is so used also in the discourses of the early chapters of the Book of Acts. There the comprehensive condition of admission to the brotherhood of believers and of participation in the life of the Spirit is repentance (Act 2:38; Act 3:19; Act 5:31). Faith is not mentioned, though, in the nature of the case, it is included.

In the Fourth Gospel the reverse is the case. There faith is the condition of salvation (Joh 3:15-16; Joh 3:36) But while repentance is not specifically mentioned, it is included in the notion of faith. Faith is the trustful commitment of one’s self to God for forgiveness of sins, and deliverance from sin; but it is psychologically impossible to commit one’s self thus to God without renouncing and turning away from all that is contrary to God. And this impossibility is expressed or implied in the discourses of the Fourth Gospel. For they clearly set forth the moral conditionality of faith. A man cannot exercise faith whose heart is not right, whose moral condition and attitude of will are opposed to the right (Joh 5:44). And this moral conditionality of faith is exactly what is meant by repentance, in its narrower sense. Faith is the condition of entrance into the experience of salvation, the enjoyment of eternal life; but repentance is the psychological and moral condition of faith. As eternal life is unattainable without faith, faith is unattainable without repentance.

But Jesus was a preacher, not a theologian. Consequently His call to repentance is, as a rule, in the form of those exquisite parables that speak to the heart. Such is the parable of the Pharisee and the Publican (Luk 18:9-14), and that of the Prodigal Son (Luk 15:11-24). The latter of these is the truest, the humanest, and the tenderest picture of repentance to be found in the Bible. The essential elements in the repentance of the Prodigal are (1) a realization of his desperate condition: ‘He came to himself’; (2) a definite mental determination to reverse his course and retrace his steps at any risk: ‘I will arise and go to my father’; (3) the decisive act of breaking away from his surroundings and going straight into the presence of his much wronged father: ‘He arose and came to his father’; (4) his absolute, abject, self-effacing humility: ‘I am no more worthy to be called a son of thine; make me as a servant’; (5) his open, outspoken, unreserved, unqualified confession: ‘I have sinned to the very heaven, and my sin is against thee, O thou best of fathers.’

2. How Christ leads men to repentance.—If repentance means what we have seen, namely, the change from the self-centred life to the God-centred life, then Jesus is the author and inspiration of repentance. No other was ever able to reach down deep enough into human nature to effect this change. And He does it (1) by means of the revelation which He gives of the beauty and blessedness of righteousness in contrast with the ugliness and wretchedness of sin. This revelation makes one ‘hunger and thirst after righteousness.’ (2) By means of the revelation which He has given of God and the Fatherly compassion of God toward alienated and sinning men. (3) By means of the surpassing and compelling exhibition of His own love in renouncing self and enduring such suffering as He did for the reconciliation and redemption of men. (4) By working in man through His Spirit that sorrow for sin and hatred of sin which lead men to renounce it and to turn away from it, seeking forgiveness and deliverance. (5) By holding out to men and giving to men the power to forsake sin and to overcome the tendency to sin. (6) Through the convincing effect of examples of that moral transformation which He is continually working in men and women of all sorts and conditions. In short, the history of Christianity in the past and the Christendom of the present both form a solid commentary of fact on the pregnant and potent words of St. Peter: ‘Him hath God exalted as Prince and Saviour, to give repentance and forgiveness of sins’ (Act 5:31).

Literature.—Bruce, Kingdom of God; Wendt, Teaching of Jesus; Stevens, Theology of NT; Beyschlag, NT Theology; Alexander, Son of Man; Weiss, Life of Christ; Stapfer, Jesus Christ before His Ministry; Hasting’s Dictionary of the Bible , art. ‘Repentance’; W. Herrmann, Communion with God, 253; de Witt Hyde, Jesus’ Way (1903), 55; Gilbert, Revelation of Jesus (1899), 62; C. A. Briggs, Ethical Teaching of Jesus (1904), 68; J. Watson, Doctrines of Grace (1900), 25; J. Denney, ‘Three Motives to Repentance’ in Exp. 4th ser. vii. (1893) 232; C. G. Montefiore, ‘Rabbinic Conceptions of Repentance’ in JQR [Note: QR Jewish Quarterly Review.] xvi. (1903) 209; P. J. Maclagan, The Gospel View (1906), 71; H. Black, Edinburgh Sermons (1906), 89.

Gross Alexander.

(Hebr. "teshubah"):

By: Kaufmann Kohler, Max Schlesinger

The noun occurs only in post-Biblical literature, but it is derived from the vocabulary of the Bible. Maimonides' dictum, "All the prophets preach repentance" ("Yad," Teshubah, vii. 5), echoes the opinion of Talmudic authority (Ber. 34b).

—Biblical Data:

In Biblical as well as post-Biblical literature repentance is postulated as the indispensable condition on which the salvation and redemption of the people of Israel, as well as of every individual man, depend (Gen. iv. 7; Lev. iv., v.; Deut. iv. 30, xxx. 2; I Kings viii. 33, 48; Hosea xiv. 2; Jer. iii. 12, xxxi. 18, xxxvi. 3; Ezek. xviii. 30-32; Isa. liv. 22, lv. 6-10; Joel ii. 12; Jonah ii. 10).

Scope and Function.

The full meaning of repentance, according to Jewish doctrine, is clearly indicated in the term "teshubah" (lit. "return"; from the verb ). This implies: (1) All transgression and sin are the natural and inevitable consequence of man's straying from God and His laws (comp. Deut. xi. 26-28; Isa. i. 4; Jer. ii. 13, xvi. 11; Ezek. xviii. 30). (2) It is man's destiny, and therefore his duty, to be with God as God is with him. (3) It is within the power of every man to redeem himself from sin by resolutely breaking away from it and turning to God, whose loving-kindness is ever extended to the returning sinner. "Let the wicked forsake his way, and the unrighteous man his thoughts: and let him return unto the Lord, and he will have mercy upon him; and to our God, for he will abundantly pardon" (Isa. lv. 7; comp. Jer. iii. 12; Ezek. xviii. 32; Joel ii. 13). (4) Because "there is not a just man upon earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not" (Eccl. vii. 20; I Kings viii. 46), every mortal stands in need of this insistence on his "return" to God.

Manifestations of Repentance.

The Mosaic legislation distinguishes between offenses against God and offenses against man. In the first case the manifestation of repentance consists in: (1) Confession of one's sin before God (Lev. v. 5; Num. v. 7), the essential part of which, according to rabbinical interpretation (Yoma 87b; Maimonides, l.c. i. 1), is the solemn promise and firm resolve not to commit the same sin again. (2) The offering of the legally prescribed sacrifice (Lev. v. 1-20). Offenses against man require, in addition to confession and sacrifice, restitution in full of whatever has been wrongfully obtained or withheld from one's fellow man, with one-fifth of its value added thereto (Lev. v. 20-26). If the wronged man has died, restitution must be made to his heir; if he has no heir, it must be given to the priest who officiates at the sacrifice made for the remission of the sin (Num. v. 7-9).

Prophetic Conception.

Other manifestations of repentance mentioned in the Bible are: pouring out water (I Sam. vii. 6; according to the Targum symbolizing the pouring out of one's heart before God; comp. Yer. Ta'an. 68d; Midr. Teh. cxix.; Lam. ii. 19); prayer (II Sam. xii. 16); self-affliction, as fasting, tearing the upper garment, and wearing sackcloth; sitting and sleeping on the ground (I Kings xxi. 27; Joel ii. 13; Jonah iii. 5; Neh. ix. 1). The Prophets disparaged all such outer manifestations of repentance, insisting rather on a complete change of the sinner's mental and spiritual attitude. They demanded a regeneration of the heart, i.e., a determined turning from sinand returning to God by striving after righteousness. "O Israel, return unto the Lord thy God; for thou hast fallen by thine iniquity. Take with you words, and return unto the Lord: say unto him, Take away all iniquity, and accept us graciously: so will we render as bullocks the offerings of our lips" (Hos. xiv. 1-2, Hebr.). "Rend your heart, and not your garments, and turn unto the Lord your God: for he is gracious and full of compassion, slow to anger and plenteous in mercy, and repenteth him of the evil" (Joel ii. 13, R. V.). "Cast away from you all your transgressions whereby ye have transgressed; and make you a new heart and a new spirit: for why will ye die, O house of Israel?" (Ezek. xviii. 31; comp. Ps. li. and Jer. xxiv. 7).

—Rabbinical View:

All that the Bible teaches of repentance has been greatly amplified in rabbinical literature. Repentance is of paramount importance to the existence of this world, so that it was one of the seven provisions which God made before the Creation (Pes. 54a; Ned. 39b; Gen. R. i.). "The Holy One, blessed be His name, said to Elijah, 'Behold, the precious gift which I have bestowed on my world: though a man sinneth again and again, but returneth in penitence, I will receive him'" (Yer. Sanh. 28b). "Great is repentance: it brings healing into the world"; "it reaches to the throne of God" (comp. Hos. xiv. 2, 5); "it brings redemption" (comp. Isa. lix. 20); "it prolongs man's life" (comp. Ezek. xviii. 21; Yoma 86a, b). "Repentance and works of charity are man's intercessors before God's throne" (Shab. 32a). Sincere repentance is equivalent to the rebuilding of the Temple, the restoration of the altar, and the offering of all the sacrifices (Pesiḳ., ed. Buber, xxv. 158; Lev. R. vii.; Sanh. 43b). Sincere repentance is manifested when the same temptation to sin, under the same conditions, is ever after resolutely resisted (Yoma 86b; "Yad," Teshubah, ii. 1-2). "He that confesses his sin and still clings to it is likened to a man that holds in his hand a defiling object; though he batheth in all the waters of the world he is not cleansed; but the moment he casteth the defiling object from him a single bath will cleanse him, as it is said (Prov. xxviii. 13): 'Whoso confesseth and forsaketh them [his sins] shall have mercy'" (Ta'an. 16a; "Yad," l.c. ii. 3).

Prerequisite of Atonement.

Repentance is the prerequisite of all atonement (Yoma viii. 8; "Yad," l.c. i. 1). The Day of Atonement derives its great significance only from the fact that it is the culmination of the ten penitential days with which the Jewish religious year begins; and therefore it is of no avail without repentance (Yoma viii. 8; Sifra, Emor, xiv.). Though man ought to be penitent every day (Ab. ii. 10; Shab. 153a), the first ten days of every year are the acceptable time announced by the prophet (Isa. lv. 6): "Seek ye the Lord while he may be found, call ye upon him while he is near" (R. H. 18a; "Yad," l.c. ii. 6). Repentance and the Day of Atonement absolve from sins against God; from sins against our fellow man they absolve only when restitution has been made and the pardon of the offended party has been obtained (Yoma 87a; "Yad," l.c. ii. 9).

No man need despair on account of his sins, for every penitent sinner is graciously received by his heavenly Father and forgiven. "The Holy One, blessed be His name, said to Jeremiah: 'Go, tell Israel that they return.' Jeremiah told them. Said Israel:'With what countenance shall we come before God? Are not these hills and mountains, on which we served other gods, standing there? We are overwhelmed with shame.' Jeremiah brought back to God what they had said. Again God said to Jeremiah: 'Go, tell them, if ye return to me, do ye not return to your Father in heaven? As it is said, "For I am a father to Israel, and Ephraim is my first-born"'" (Jer. xxxi. 9; Pesiḳ., ed. Buber, xxv. 165). Nor is it ever too late, even on the day of death, to return to God with sincere repentance (Ḳid. 40b; "Yad," l.c. ii. 1), for "as the sea is always open for every one who wishes to cleanse himself, so are the gates of repentance always open to the sinner" (Pesiḳ., ed. Buber, xxv. 157; Deut. R. ii.; Midr. Teh. lxiii.), and the hand of God is continually stretched out to receive him (Pes. 119a; Deut. R. ii.). Nay, the repentant sinner attains a more exalted spiritual eminence than he who has never sinned (Ber. 34b; "Yad," l.c. vii. 4). It is therefore a grievous sin to taunt the repentant sinner by recalling his former sinful ways (B. M. 58b; "Yad," l.c. vii. 8).

Bibliography:

Maimonides, Yad, Teshubah;

Hamburger, R. B. T. i. 201, ii. 96;

Bacher, Ag. Index, s.v. Busse (Rana).

K. M. Schl.Power of Teshubah.

In Biblical Hebrew the idea of repentance is represented by two verbs—"shub" (to return) and "niḥam" (to feel sorrow; comp. Job xlii. 6, "I . . . repent in dust and ashes," and Joel ii. 14, "he will return and repent")—but by no substantive. The underlying idea has been adequately expressed in Greek by μετάνοια, a word which denotes "change of mind and heart." The idea, however, is peculiarly Jewish, so much so that its ethical force is lost in the Christian dogma of the atoning Christ (see the note of Franz Delitzsch quoted by Montefiore in "J. Q. R." xvi. 212). In fact, where Paulinism speaks of a "saving grace" of God through Christ (see Saul of Tarsus), Judaism emphasizes the redeeming power of teshubah, which is nothing else than man's self-redemption from the thraldom of sin. Wisdom says, "Evil pursueth sinners" (Prov. xiii. 21); Prophecy says, "The soul that sinneth, it shall die" (Ezek. xviii. 20); but the Holy One, blessed be He, says, "Let the sinner repent and he will be pardoned" (Yer. Mak. ii. 31d; Pesiḳ. 158a).

The entire history of mankind is accordingly viewed by the Rabbis in the light of repentance. "God waits for every sinner, be he as wicked as Pharaoh, until he repents" (Ex. R. ix. 9, xii. 1); He waits also for the heathen nations (Cant. R. v. 16; Weber's "Jüdische Theologie" [p. 67] misrepresents the facts). God waited before He destroyed the generation of the Flood, the generation of the builders of the Tower of Babel, the men of Sodom, and the Egyptians, giving them time to repent (Mek., Beshallaḥ, Shirah, 5; Gen. R. xxxii. 10, xxxviii. 13, xlix. 10-11;Wisdom xii. 10-20). So God sent Abraham to lead the heathen world to repentance (Gen. R. xxx. 5); and the Messiah, according to one rabbi, is called "Hadrak" because he shall lead all mankind to repent of their sins before God (Cant. vii. 5, with reference to zech. ix. 1).

Preachers of Repentance.

"All the prophets were preachers of repentance" (comp. Jer. iv. 1; Isa. lv. 6), "but Hosea was most emphatic and persuasive" (Pesiḳ. R. 44). Noah preached repentance to the generation of the Flood (Sanh. 108a), and in the Sibyllines (i. 125-281) he is especially represented as "the preacher of repentance" (κήρυξ μετάνοίας) to the corrupt heathen world. Possibly the Greek and the Latin versions of Ben Sira (xliv. 16) have preserved the original form. "Enoch was a teacher of repentance to the heathen" (comp. Wisdom iv. 10), although Philo ("De Abrahamo," § 3) speaks of him as "a type of repentant sinner who changed from a worse to a better mode of life" (comp. Gen. R. xxv.). A similar tradition, preserved only in Christianized and Mohammedanized forms (Vita Adæ et Evæ, ii. 15-22; Koran, surah vii. 57-76), regarded all the predecessors and successors of Noah as preachers of repentance to their generations. Moses also preached repentance, promising the people redemption upon the condition that they would repent (Philo, "De Execrationibus," §§ 8-9; Pesiḳ. R. 44, with reference to Deut. xxx. 2-3; comp. Leḳaḥ Ṭob ad loc.).

Great Types of Repentance.

All the great sinners in the Bible are presented in the Haggadah as types of repentance. Not Adam, who tried to cover his transgressions (Gen. iii. 12)and did not forthwith repent, but Cain, who confessed and forsook his evil way (Gen. iv. 13-16); not Saul, who tried to cover his sin (I Sam. xv. 14), but David, who confessed and forsook sin (II Sam. xii. 13), obtained mercy (Midr. Teh. c., with reference to Prov. xxviii. 13). Cain the transgressor was made "a sign" for repentant sinners (Gen. R. xxii.), and through him his father, Adam, learned of the efficient power of repentance (Midr. Teh. l.c. comp. Wisdom x. 1). Thus Adam is described as a great penitent, devoting himself for weeks, together with Eve, to fasting and doing penance in the waters of Gihon, Tigris, or Jordan (Pirḳe R. El. xx.; Vita Adæ Evæ, vii. 6-8). Ishmael likewise was repentant (B. B. 16b; Gen. R. xxx.).

Other types of repentance for the haggadist were: Reuben (Pesiḳ. 159b; Gen. R. lxxxii. 12, lxxxiv. 18; comp. Shab. 55b; Test. Patr., Reuben, 1); Achan (Josh. vii. 1-20), who showed repentants the way by confession (Lev. R., with reference to Ps. 1. 23); David, who by his his repentance has become a teacher and witness to all repentant sinners ('Ab. Zarah 4b-5a; Midr. Teh. xl, 2, li. 3; Tanna debe Eliyahu R. ii.). Ahab is a type of repentance (Yer. Sanh. x. 28b; Pesiḳ. 160b); Manasseh is depicted in the oldest Midrash as the typical penitent sinner. Especially significant are his words in the Prayer of Manasses: "Thou, O Lord, . . . hast promised repentance and forgiveness to them that have sinned against Thee, . . . that they may be saved"; not "to the just, as to Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, which have not sinned against Thee; but . . . unto me that am a sinner" (Yer. Sanh. l.c.; Sanh. 103a, b; Pesixḳ. 162a; see Didascalia; Manasseh). Yokaniah (Pesiḳ. 162-163; Lev. R. x. 5) and Josiah (Shab. 56b) were repentant sinners. God endeavored to persuade Jeroboam I. to repent, but he refused to do so (Sanh. 101a). However, heathen like Balaam repented (Num. R. xx. 15); Rahab the harlot became a penitent sinner (Tanna debe Eliyahu Zuṭa xxii.); and the men of Nineveh became types of repentance (Pesiḳ. 161a). God forgave the people of Israel the sin of the golden calf only that they might teach the world repentance ('Ab. Zarah 4b).

The tannaitic period also had, in Eleazar ben Durdaia, the type of a penitent sinner whose sin and repentence became an object of popular legend ('Ab. Zarah 17b). In the amoraic period such types were furnished by Resh Lakish (Pirḳe R. El. xliii.), by Abba, the father of R. Jeremiah b. Abba, and by the exilarch 'Uḳban b. Nehemiah (Shab. 55b).

Nature of Repentance.

All are encouraged by God to repent excepting him who sins with the intention of repenting afterward (Yoma viii. 9; comp. Amon), or him who persists in his wickedness (Yoma 86b; Ex. R. xi. 2-3; Midr. Teh. i., end). Repentance is especially useless for him who by his teaching and example has caused others to sin (Ab. v. 26; Sanh. 107b); hence the heavenly voice, "All ye backsliding children repent, except Aḥer" (Elisha b. Abuyah; Ḥag. 15a). Gehazi was not allowed to repent (Soṭah 47a). As long as man lives he may repent, but there is no repentance after death, only submissive acceptance of God's punitive justice (Eccl. R. i. 15, vii. 15; Pirke R. El. xliii.; Ruth R. i. 17; Shab. 32a; 'Er. 19a; Yalḳ., Isa. xxvi. 2). Wherefore R. Eliezer said: "Repent one day before death" (Ab. ii. 10)—that is, every day (Shab. 153a; Eccl. R. ix. 8, where the parable of the wise and foolish servants by R. Johanan b. Zakkai is given in illustration). The righteous repent for every sin they have committed (Ex. R. xxiii. 3); the disciple of the wise repents every night for his sin (Ber. 19a; Ḥag. 75a); so Israel is expected to repent in time in order to inherit the future life (Ex. R. xxiii. 11). The heathen, as a rule, do not repent (Pesiḳ. 156a, b); comp. 'Ab. Zarah 3a). "As long as the people are sin-laden they can not be God's children; only when they have repented have they in reality become His children" (Sifre, Num. 112, with reference to Deut. xxxiii. 5; comp. Sifre, Deut. 308).

The sinners who have repented are raised and placed among God's hosts (Yalḳ., Ps. xlv.). Repentance is not an outward act, as Weber ("Jüdische Theologie," p. 261) endeavors to represent it, but an inner cleansing of the heart (Pesiḳ. 161b). It must be perfectly sincere, true contrition, coupled with shame and self-reproach, and confession (Ber. 12b; Ḥag. 5a; Sanh. 43; Pesiḳ. R. 83; Yer. Ta'an. ii. 65). A striking picture of such repentance is given by Eleazar b. Durdai'a ('Ab. Zarah 17a). In the same sense repentance is described in Psalms of Solomon, ix. 6-7; and is dwelt upon, in Wisdom xi. 23; xii. 10, 19; Book of Jubilees, v. 17. It is well analyzed by Philo, in "De Execrationibus," § 8, as a feeling of shame and self-reproach which leads to a frank and sincere confession and a change of heartand of conduct. "Through it Israel shall be accepted by God their Father and be gathered again from all quarters of the globe, the glory of God marching before them" (comp. Sanh. 97b; Tobit xiii. 6, xiv. 6).

In Judaic Christianity.

It is interesting to observe that the call for repentance which was manifested in Essene circles by bathing in water (see Gen. R. ii. 5; Yer. Ta'an. ii. 65d; comp. Adam's penitence, mentioned above) is voiced in the synoptic Gospels and throughout Judaic Christianity (Matt. iii. 2, iv. 17; Mark i. 15); in the fourth Gospel and throughout the Pauline writings repentance is superseded by rebirth in faith. In the Catholic Church contrition, confession, and satisfaction become parts of the sacramental act of "pœnitentia," whereas the Protestant churches follow the Pauline teachings pure and simple (see Herzog-Hauck, "Real-Encyc." s.v. "Busse").

Repentance occupies a very prominent position in all the ethical writings of the Middle Ages. Baḥya ibn Paḳuda devotes a special section to it in his "Ḥobot ha-Lebabot"—the "seventh gate," called "Gate of Repentance." Maimonides devotes the last section of "Sefer ha-Madda'" and the first book of his "Yad ha-Ḥazaḳah" to the "Rules of Teshubah." Isaac Aboab, in his "Menorat ha-Ma'or," has eighteen chapters concering repentance. No less elaborate are the more mystic writers on the same subject: Eleazar of Worms, in his "Roḳeaḥ"; Isaiah Horwitz, in his "Shene Luḥot ha-Berit"; Elijah de Vidas, in his "Reshit Ḥokmah"; and others. Some of these chapters were frequently if not regularly read by the pious every year, before or during the penitential day, to prepare the heart for the great Atonement Day.

Bibliography:

Bousset, Religion des Judenthums, pp. 368 et seq.;

Claude Monteflore, Rabbinic Conceptions of Repentance, in J. Q. R. xvi. 209-257;

Weber, Jüdische Theologie, Index.

REPENTANCE.—Repentance, in the sense of turning from a purpose, is frequently predicated of God in the OT (Gen 6:6-7, Exo 32:14 etc.). Repentance for sin is commonly expressed by ‘turn’ or ‘return’ (e.g. Deu 4:30, Isa 55:7, Eze 3:2, Hos 14:2). Repentance has a prominent place in the NT, alone (Mat 4:17, Luk 15:7, Act 2:38 etc.), or in conjunction with faith (Mar 1:15, Act 20:21 etc.), as an Indispensable condition of salvation. The word ordinarily used (metanoia) means literally ‘change of mind.’ The change, however, is one in which not the intellect only, but the whole nature (understanding, affections, will), is involved. It is such an altered view of God and sin as carries with it heartfelt sorrow for sin, confession of it, and decisive turning from it to God and righteousness (Luk 15:17-18, Rom 6:17-18, 2Co 7:10-11 etc.). Its reality is tested by its fruits (Mat 3:8, Luk 6:43-46). From this ‘godly sorrow’, which works ‘repentance unto salvation’ (2Co 7:10-11), is distinguished a ‘sorrow of the world’ which ‘worketh death’ (2Co 7:10), i.e. a sorrow which has no relation to God, or to the intrinsic evil of sin, but only to sin’s harmful consequences. There may be keen remorse, and blaming of one’s self for one’s folly, yet no real repentance.

Disputes have arisen in theology as to the priority of faith or repentance, but unnecessarily, for the two, rightly viewed, are but the positive and negative poles of the same state of soul. There can be no evangelical faith which does not spring from a heart broken and contrite on account of sin; on the other hand, there can be no true repentance which has not the germ of faith in God, and of hope in His mercy, in it. The Law alone would break the heart; the Gospel melts it. Repentance is the turning from sin; Gospel faith is the turning to Christ for salvation. The acts are inseparable (Act 20:21).

James Orr.

rḗ-pen´tans:

I.    OLD TESTAMENT TERMS

1.    To Repent - “to Pant,” “to Sigh”

2.    To Repent - “to Turn” or “Return”

II.    NEW TESTAMENT TERMS

1.    Repent - “to Care,” “Be Concerned”

2.    Repent - “to Change the Mind”

3.    Repent - “to Turn Over,” “to Turn Upon,” “to Turn Unto”

III.    THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS

1.    The Intellectual Element

2.    The Emotional Element

3.    The Volitional Element

LITERATURE

To get an accurate idea of the precise New Testament meaning of this highly important word it is necessary to consider its approximate synonyms in the original Hebrew and Greek The psychological elements of repentance should be considered in the light of the general teaching of Scripture.

I. Old Testament Terms.

1. To Repent - “To Pant,” “To Sigh”:

The Hebrew word נחם, nāḥam, is an onomatopoetic term which implies difficulty in breathing, hence, “to pant,” “to sigh,” “to groan.” Naturally it came to signify “to lament” or “to grieve,” and when the emotion was produced by the desire of good for others, it merged into compassion and sympathy, and when incited by a consideration of one’s own character and deeds it means “to rue,” “to repent.” To adapt language to our understanding, God is represented as repenting when delayed penalties are at last to be inflicted, or when threatened evils have been averted by genuine reformation (Gen 6:6; Jon 3:10). This word is translated “repent” about 40 times in the Old Testament, and in nearly all cases it refers to God. The principal idea is not personal relation to sin, either in its experience of grief or in turning from an evil course. Yet the results of sin are manifest in its use. God’s heart is grieved at man’s iniquity, and in love He bestows His grace, or in justice He terminates His mercy. It indicates the aroused emotions of God which prompt Him to a different course of dealing with the people. Similarly when used with reference to man, only in this case the consciousness of personal transgression is evident. This distinction in the application of the word is intended by such declarations as God “is not a man, that he should repent” (1Sa 15:29; Job 42:6; Jer 8:6).

2. To Repent - “To Turn” or “Return”:

The term שׁוּב, shūbh, is most generally employed to express the Scriptural idea of genuine repentance. It is used extensively by the prophets, and makes prominent the idea of a radical change in one’s attitude toward sin and God. It implies a conscious, moral separation, and a personal decision to forsake sin and to enter into fellowship with God. It is employed extensively with reference to man’s turning away from sin to righteousness (Deu 4:30; Neh 1:9; Psa 7:12; Jer 3:14). It quite often refers to God in His relation to man (Exo 32:12; Jos 7:26). It is employed to indicate the thorough spiritual change which God alone can effect (Psa 85:4). When the term is translated by “return” it has reference either to man, to God, or to God and man (1Sa 7:3; Psa 90:13 (both terms, nāḥam and shūbh; Isa 21:12; Isa 55:7). Both terms are also sometimes employed when the twofold idea of grief and altered relation is expressed, and are translated by “repent” and “return” (Eze 14:6; Hos 12:6; Jon 3:8).

II. New Testament Terms.

1. Repent - “To Care,” “Be Concerned”:

The term μεταμέλομαι, metamélomai, literally signifies to have a feeling or care, concern or regret; like nāḥam, it expresses the emotional aspect of repentance. The feeling indicated by the word may issue in genuine repentance, or it may degenerate into mere remorse (Mat 21:29, Mat 21:32; Mat 27:3). Judas repented only in the sense of regret, remorse, and not in the sense of the abandonment of sin. The word is used with reference to Paul’s feeling concerning a certain course of conduct, and with reference to God in His attitude toward His purposes of grace (2Co 7:8 the King James Version; Heb 7:21).

2. Repent - “To Change the Mind”:

The word μετανοέω, metanoéō, expresses the true New Testament idea of the spiritual change implied in a sinner’s return to God. The term signifies “to have another mind,” to change the opinion or purpose with regard to sin. It is equivalent to the Old Testament word “turn.” Thus, it is employed by John the Baptist, Jesus, and the apostles (Mat 3:2; Mar 1:15; Act 2:38). The idea expressed by the word is intimately associated with different aspects of spiritual transformation and of Christian life, with the process in which the agency of man is prominent, as faith (Act 20:21), and as conversion (Act 3:19); also with those experiences and blessings of which God alone is the author, as remission and forgiveness of sin (Luk 24:47; Act 5:31). It is sometimes conjoined with baptism, which as an overt public act proclaims a changed relation to sin and God (Mar 1:4; Luk 3:3; Act 13:24; Act 19:4). As a vital experience, repentance is to manifest its reality by producing good fruits appropriate to the new spiritual life (Mat 3:8).

3. Repent - “To Turn over,” “To Turn upon,” “To Turn Unto”:

The word έπιστρέφω, epistréphō, is used to bring out more clearly the distinct change wrought in repentance. It is employed quite frequently in Acts to express the positive side of a change involved in New Testament repentance, or to indicate the return to God of which the turning from sin is the negative aspect. The two conceptions are inseparable and complementary. The word is used to express the spiritual transition from sin to God (Act 9:35; 1Th 1:9); to strengthen the idea of faith (Act 11:21); and to complete and emphasize the change required by New Testament repentance (Act 26:20).

There is great difficulty in expressing the true idea of a change of thought with reference to sin when we translate the New Testament “repentance” into other languages. The Latin version renders it “exercise penitence” (poenitentiam agere). But “penitence” etymologically signifies pain, grief, distress, rather than a change of thought and purpose. Thus Latin Christianity has been corrupted by the pernicious error of presenting grief over sin rather than abandonment of sin as the primary idea of New Testament repentance. It was easy to make the transition from penitence to penance, consequently the Romanists represent Jesus and the apostles as urging people to do penance (poenitentiam agite). The English word “repent” is derived from the Latin repoenitere, and inherits the fault of the Latin, making grief the principal idea and keeping it in the background, if not altogether out of sight, the fundamental New Testament conception of a change of mind with reference to sin. But the exhortations of the ancient prophets, of Jesus, and of the apostles show that the change of mind is the dominant idea of the words employed, while the accompanying grief and consequent reformation enter into one’s experience from the very nature of the case.

III. The Psychological Elements.

1. The Intellectual Element:

Repentance is that change of a sinner’s mind which leads him to turn from his evil ways and live. The change wrought in repentance is so deep and radical as to affect the whole spiritual nature and to involve the entire personality. The intellect must function, the emotions must be aroused, and the will must act. Psychology shows repentance to be profound, personal and all-pervasive. The intellectual element is manifest from the nature of man as an intelligent being, and from the demands of God who desires only rational service. Man must apprehend sin as unutterably heinous, the divine law as perfect and inexorable, and himself as coming short or falling below the requirements of a holy God (Job 42:5, Job 42:6; Psa 51:3; Rom 3:20).

2. The Emotional Element:

There may be a knowledge of sin without turning from it as an awful thing which dishonors God and ruins man. The change of view may lead only to a dread of punishment and not to the hatred and abandonment of sin (Exo 9:27; Num 22:34; Jos 7:20; 1Sa 15:24; Mat 27:4). An emotional element is necessarily involved in repentance. While feeling is not the equivalent of repentance, it nevertheless may be a powerful impulse to a genuine turning from sin. A penitent cannot from the nature of the case be stolid and indifferent. The emotional attitude must be altered if New Testament repentance be experienced. There is a type of grief that issues in repentance and another which plunges into remorse. There is a godly sorrow and also a sorrow of the world. The former brings life; the latter, death (Mat 27:3; Luk 18:23; 2Co 7:9, 2Co 7:10). There must be a consciousness of sin in its effect on man and in its relation to God before there can be a hearty turning away from unrighteousness. The feeling naturally accompanying repentance implies a conviction of personal sin and sinfulness and an earnest appeal to God to forgive according to His mercy (Psa 51:1, Psa 51:2, Psa 51:10-14).

3. The Volitional Element:

The most prominent element in the psychology of repentance is the voluntary, or volitional. This aspect of the penitent’s experience is expressed in the Old Testament by “turn”, or “return,” and in the New Testament by “repent” or “turn.” The words employed in the Hebrew and Greek place chief emphasis on the will, the change of mind, or of purpose, because a complete and sincere turning to God involves both the apprehension of the nature of sin and the consciousness of personal guilt (Jer 25:5; Mar 1:15; Act 2:38; 2Co 7:9, 2Co 7:10). The demand for repentance implies free will and individual responsibility. That men are called upon to repent there can be no doubt, and that God is represented as taking the initiative in repentance is equally clear. The solution of the problem belongs to the spiritual sphere. The psychical phenomena have their origin in the mysterious relations of the human and the divine personalities. There can be no external substitute for the internal change. Sackcloth for the body and remorse for the soul are not to be confused with a determined abandonment of sin and return to God. Not material sacrifice, but a spiritual change, is the inexorable demand of God in both dispensations (Psa 51:17; Isa 1:11; Jer 6:20; Hos 6:6).

Repentance is only a condition of salvation and not its meritorious ground. The motives for repentance are chiefly found in the goodness of God, in divine love, in the pleading desire to have sinners saved, in the inevitable consequences of sin, in the universal demands of the gospel, and in the hope of spiritual life and membership in the kingdom of heaven (Eze 33:11; Mar 1:15; Luk 13:1-5; Joh 3:16; Act 17:30; Rom 2:4; 1Ti 2:4). The first four beatitudes (Mat 5:3-6) form a heavenly ladder by which penitent souls pass from the dominion of Satan into the Kingdom of God. A consciousness of spiritual poverty dethroning pride, a sense of personal unworthiness producing grief, a willingness to surrender to God in genuine humility, and a strong spiritual desire developing into hunger and thirst, enter into the experience of one who wholly abandons sin and heartily turns to Him who grants repentance unto life.

Literature.

Various theological works and commentaries Note especially Strong, Systematic Theology, III, 832-36; Broadus on Mat 3:2, American Comm.; article “Busse” (Penance). Hauck-Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche.

Repentance (ìåôÜíïéá) is one of two words used in the NT, both of which originally denoted a change of mind of any sort. It is so used, though only occasionally, in Thucydides, Plato, Polybius, etc., and the phrase locus paenitentiae (‘opportunity for a change of mind’; cf. ôüðïí ìåôáíïßáò, Wis_12:10 and Heb_12:17, both with a deeper religious meaning-for the latter passage see B. F. Westcott, Hebrews 1889, in loc.) is found in the Roman jurists. ìåôáíïåῖí is common in the Septuagint ; there, with ðáñáêëçèῆíáé (cf. the use of ἵëåùò), it denotes change of mind or attitude, both in man and in God, as the translation of øçí (Niph), whose causative mood is used for bringing about the special change from sorrow to ease (e.g. Gen_6:7, Exo_32:12; Exo_32:14, 1Ch_21:15, Joe_2:13, 1Sa_15:29 [cf. 1Sa_15:11]). The noun is very rare in the Septuagint , occurring only in Pro_14:15, Wis_11:23; Wis_12:10; Wis_12:19, and Sir_44:16 (Ἐíὼ÷ … ὑðüäåéãìá ìåôáíïßáò). In the NT, a differentiation takes place: ìåôáìÝëïìáé (which is also found in a few passages in the classics) is used for a general change of attitude or purpose (Mat_21:30; Mat_27:3 and Heb_7:21, a quotation from Psa_110:4, the only reference to a change of mind in God in the NT, though cf. 2Co_7:8); ìåôÜíïéá, and ìåôáíïåῖí are used of a religious change of attitude to God and to sin, often occurring in the phrase ìåôÜíïéá ἀðὸ or ἐê. No such idea is found in classical Greek literature. It is commoner in Acts than in any other book of the NT. The earliest Christian preaching, as there described, involved the announcement of Jesus as the Messiah and the simple call for repentance in view of His near return (Act_2:38; Act_3:19; Act_8:22; Act_20:21). This is equally true of the sermons of the original apostles and of St. Paul; in Act_17:30, St. Paul tells the Athenians that God is summoning all to repentance, using the same phrase-ἀðáããÝëëåéí ìåôáíïåῖí-as he uses of his own action in Act_26:20. In essence, this is identical with the preaching of the Baptist (Act_13:24; Act_19:4; cf. Mat_3:2 and ||s), except that the Baptist spoke of Jesus as coming, and of the Kingdom, or the Messiah, as at hand, while the apostles referred to Jesus as already come. How repentance is to be brought about is not stated. The imperative mood implies an act of human will, possible for all to whom the call comes. On the other hand, the apostles speak of Jesus as having been exalted by God as Captain and Saviour, to give repentance unto Israel, and remission of sins (Act_5:31); and the Christians in Jerusalem, hearing of the conversion of Cornelius, exclaim, ‘Why, God has given repentance to the Gentiles’ (Act_11:18; cf. Wis_12:19). There is probably here no contradiction, thought, if such existed, it might easily have been overlooked by the early preachers. Man could not be thought of as forced into repentance independently of his own will; but repentance is none the leas made possible only through a dispensation of God’s grace (cf. article Atonement, and 2Pe_3:9, where the Lord is said to will that all men should come to repentance). As in the preaching of the Baptist (Mat_3:2 and ||s), repentance is expected to manifest itself in conduct (Act_26:20).

The above passages show that repentance was an integral part of St. Paul’s preaching; but references to repentance in the Pauline Epistles are very rare, though of great interest. The kindness of God leads to repentance (Rom_2:4; a strikingly similar thought is also found in Eze_36:29 ff., though in Eze_6:9 the impulse to repentance is attributed to a different cause; cf. the interesting passage Wis_12:22-27). The forbearance and mildness characteristic of the servant of God may lead to God’s giving repentance to those who experience such treatment (2Ti_2:25). In each case, the simple conception of Act_5:31; Act_11:18, that repentance is an attitude induced or made possible by God, is at once elaborated and modified. There is. no explicit reference here to the work of Christ; but, as in Ezekiel, the experience of blessings felt to be unmerited, or the shock of unmerited forbearance from Christian people, brings about a change of mind towards sin and God. With the foregoing, we may compare the simple statement in Clem. Rom. (Ep. ad Cor. i. 7) that from generation to generation the Master has given opportunity for repentance to those who wish to turn to Him.

How is this wish caused? Hitherto, we have met no reference in the NT to the ‘godly sorrow’ for sin emphasized by Ezekiel. In converts from heathenism there might be fear at a threatened catastrophe (cf. the Philippian jailer) but not sorrow. In one passage, however, St. Paul is led to develop very clearly the influence of sorrow for sin on believers. He is referring to the effect of his previous sharp rebuke on the Corinthian Church, which hitherto had refused to mourn for the presence of sin within its borders (1Co_5:2; cf. 1Co_12:26). He does not now regret (ìåôáìÝëåóèáé not ìåôáíïåῖí in this case) the pain he had caused them, since this pain was experienced in the way of God (êáôὰ èåüí) rather than in the way of the world, and this worked not death (cf. the young man‘s sorrow in Mat_19:22) but repentance, arousing in them indignation, fear, longing, and a passionate desire to set themselves right. The result of such sorrow in the community is seen in the punishment inficted on the guilty member; and once this has brought repentance to him also, he must be comforted by his fellow-believers, lest he be overwhelmed by his pain. If, on the other hand, this punishment is ineffectual, more drastic treatment from the Apostle will be needed (2Co_13:2). At the same time, he knows that the sin of his converts and friends will cause a deep sorrow, a ‘vicarious repentance,’ in him (2Co_12:21, cf. Jer_8:18 ff.).

One passage, denying the possibility of repentance to those who fall away after illumination (Heb_6:6; cf. Heb_12:17) has occasioned great difficulty to interpreters. With the theological questions raised by the verse we have no concern here; repentance, however, is evidently used in its largest sense of an entire change of attitude, and the writer’s meaning is that when a man has definitely relinquished the fullest spiritual privileges, it is impossible (for human agency) to enter on a process of making him anew (the expressions and the tenses used are noteworthy). Apart from this passage, however, the possibility that repentance may be for some men unattainable is never hinted at. Repentance in believers has a prominent place in the messages to the Seven Churches. There, it is expected that repentance will follow from the accusation and conviction of sin. If not, a sudden punishment in each case is to fall on both the guilty church and the sinners harboured in it (Rev_2:5; Rev_2:16; Rev_2:21; Rev_3:3, etc.). In the Apostolic Fathers, explicit references to this repentance are lacking. Even the letters of Ignatius, though addressed to churches with whom their writer bad considerable fault to find, say nothing definite on the subject. Hermas is aware that this sorrow may be a blessing; but he is more concerned to point out that, in general, sorrow may distress the Spirit which dwells in the Christian (Mand. X. iii. 1, 2), In the Apostolic Age, indeed, it would seem that Christians were so eager to enter into the new joy, that they would not stay to contemplate sorrow (Act_2:46, Eph_1:3; if they groaned, it was for a fuller illumination, Rom_8:23). This frame of mind finds constant expression in the Odes of Solomon; in almost the only place where repentance and sorrow might have occurred to the writer (xxxiii., Christ’s preaching in Hades), they are tin unmentioned. As for the heathen, their sins had been overlooked (Act_17:30). Divine punishments for sin might well bring sorrow to the evildcer (Jam_5:1, Rev_9:20-21; Rev_16:9; Rev_16:11 where the most drastic treatment meted out to the sinners in the world before the Parousia fails to produce repentance); but such sufferings as come to the Christian are lifted up into the rapture of communion with Christ (Col_1:24, 1Pe_4:13).

These considerations may be thought hardly sufficient to explain the comparative silence of St. Paul. It may be added that he was writing for believers, in whom repentance was an accomplished fact, his chief concern being to lead them on to religion conceptions and levels of conduct of whose significance they could not have been aware when they first turned from dead works. Further, he does not lay great emphasis on the original and simple change of attitude in his converts. He rather analyzes what would seem to have been his own experience of it: the crushing weight of law; the emergence of desire: the resultant sense of helplessness; and the deliverance wrought by the grace of God (Rom_7:24; cf. I. A. Dorner, System of Christian Ethics, Eng. translation , 1887, p. 364; the wretchedness to which St. Paul here refers is not sorrow for sin, but the resulting sense of being torn in two); or else he describes its immediate consequences, in relation to Christ, under the figures of death and resurrection (Col_2:20). Similarly, no reference is made to repentance in the Johannine Epistles or the Fourth Gospel. Its place is taken by the figures of the new birth (Joh_3:3; cf. also 1Pe_1:23) or the passage from darkness to light (Joh_8:12, 1Jn_2:8), which are equally applicable to repentance and conversion.

For this comparative neglect in the NT a psychological reason may perhaps be suggested. Repentance and conversion, unless either is imperfect, must go together. They are two sides of the same process. In repentance, however, the emotional side of the process is more prominent; but it is questionable whether a past emotion is ever recalled. The memory of its occurrence can of course be retained, and an appropriate stimulus may arouse a similar emotion. But it may be that such a stimulus never occurs. This would be the case with the normal Christian. Sorrow for sin becomes as much a thing of the past as sin itself. The emotions associated with repentance are only memories, and the forward look (Php_3:13, Heb_12:1) and the preoccupation of the mind with the things of the Kingdom (Php_4:8) will prevent any morbid dwelling on an experience which can only be temporary and ought to be short-lived, just as, by these means, any desire for a formal analysis of a past psychosis will be removed. St. Peter never refers, save by way of allusion, to his own repentance; and the long description of the stages previous to repentance and conversion in Augustine’s Confessions and Bunyan’s Grace Abounding would seem to be foreign to the spirit of the NT writers. They prefer to dilate on the consequences of the process (1Co_6:11, Tit_3:5).

The same absence of interest in abstract analysis explains the silence of the NT on the question of the relative parts played by man and God in repentance. The attitude of the NT writers is rather that of the normal believer, who knows that his attitude of mind changed (see above), and that he once willed a very different set of actions, while he is equally sure that this change could never have happened apart from the grace of God (Rom_11:33). The argument in Rom_9:14-18 is not intended to prove that God arbitrarily grants repentance to some and withholds it from others (cf. the catalogue of warnings given to Israel, Romans 10); but only that if God’s favours are withheld, God cannot rightly be blamed (see Sanday-Headlam, International Critical Commentary , ‘Romans’5, 1902, p. 248 ff.). On the other hand, with regard to the ethical consequences of repentance, there is no ambiguity whatever: a fact which is the more remarkable since the belief in the near approach of the Parousia might have been expected to lead to an ‘Interimsethik,’ or, as some of the Thessalonian converts believed, to no ethies at all (1Th_5:7, 2Th_3:11). The same thing may be seen clearly in the Epistle of Barnabas, in which the apocalyptic section is followed immediately by the transcription of the ‘Two Ways.’ (See Schweitzer, Geschichte der paulinischen Forschung, 1911, who points out that the same stress on the importance of ethies in the descriptions of the coming world after the Parousia effectually distinguishes Jewish and Christian from pagan eschatology.)

But in truth, no multiplied references to repentance were necessary. No Christian could forget the new light in which he had come to look upon his past life (the paganism around him would make this impossible), nor the act of loving self-surrender to a new personal influence which accompanied it (Act_20:21; cf. Mar_1:15, Heb_6:1); and, though he might fail to display at the first all the graces of a mature Christian character (Eph_4:28), he knew that repentance and faith together had wrought a real deliverance for him (1Pe_4:3); and if he had felt less sorrow at the time than we might have expected for sins which hitherto he had not thought of as sins, he now regarded them with the more loathing and contempt.

Literature.-R. J. Drummond, Relation of the Apostolic Teaching to the Teaching of Christ, Edinburgh, 1900; H. H. Henson, Moral Discipline in the Christian Church, London, 1905, esp. ch. iv.; R. J. Knowling, The Testimony of St. Paul to Christ, do., 1905; H. Weinel, St. Paul: The Man and His Work, Eng. translation , do., 1906; W. P. DuBose, The Gospel according to St. Paul, do., 1907; R. Allen, Missionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours, do., 1912; W. M. Macgregor, Christian Freedom, Edinburgh, 1914.

W. F. Lofthouse.

Repentance is a turning from sin to God (Deu 30:1-2; 2Ch 6:26-27; 2Ch 7:14; Neh 1:9; Psa 78:34; Isa 55:7; Jer 8:6; Jer 31:18-19; Eze 18:21; Mal 3:7; Mat 11:20-21; Luk 15:7; Luk 16:30; Act 3:19; Act 8:22; Act 14:15; Act 26:19-20; Rev 9:20-21). The open demonstration of this turning to God is sometimes called conversion (Act 15:3; cf. Act 26:17-18; 1Th 1:9-10). Jesus and the New Testament preachers commanded people to repent, because without repentance there can be no salvation (Mat 3:2; Mat 4:17; Mar 6:12; Luk 5:32; Luk 13:3; Luk 24:47; Act 2:38; Act 11:18; Act 17:30).

It is true that faith is the means by which people receive salvation (Rom 3:22-25; Eph 2:8), but faith that does not involve repentance is not true faith. It is not a faith that leads to salvation. Faith means complete trust in Jesus Christ and his atoning death. It means that people must have total dependence on Christ for their entire salvation (see FAITH). But such trust is impossible so long as they cling to anything of themselves. They cannot rely upon the work of Christ for the forgiveness of sin unless they turn from that sin (Mar 1:15; Act 11:21; Act 20:21; Act 26:18; 1Th 1:9).

Because faith involves repentance and repentance involves faith, the Bible in some places speaks of forgiveness as depending on faith (Act 10:43; Act 13:38-39), in others as depending on repentance (Luk 24:47; Act 3:19; Act 3:26). But the preaching of repentance, like the preaching of faith, must be related to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Luk 24:46-47).

Although it is true that people must exercise faith and repentance if they are to be saved, it is also true that neither faith nor repentance would be possible in the heart of self-centred human beings apart from the gracious work of God. God is the one who brings conviction of sin within people and gives them the readiness to repent and believe (Act 5:31; Act 11:18; cf. Joh 6:65; Joh 16:7-11).

Repentance involves a complete change in the mind and will of the believer. It is more than mere sorrow for sin; it is surrender to God. People may be sorry for their sin because of its consequences, but still have no thought for God. True repentance recognizes the character of sin as deserving God’s judgment, and turns from that sin to ask God’s forgiveness. Sorrow for sin that ignores God leads only to self-pity and despair. Godly sorrow leads to repentance and new life (2Co 7:9-10; cf. Job 42:5-6; Psa 51:1-17; Luk 18:13). It proves its genuineness in a complete change of behaviour (Luk 3:8-14; Luk 19:8; 2Co 5:17; 1Jn 2:4-6).

A different usage of the word ‘repent’ is found in the Old Testament, where writers sometimes use it in relation to God. The word simply has to do with a change in God’s dealings with people. It has nothing to do with any divine sin or failure (Gen 6:6; 1Sa 15:11; Jer 18:7-10; Jon 3:8-9; cf. Psa 110:4; Jer 4:28).

To repent means to turn. In the NT repentance means to turn from sin. We were called by God to turn from sin. In fact, all men everywhere are commanded by God to repent of their sins (Act 17:30). God’s longsuffering leads us to repentance (2Pe 3:9) as does His kindness (Rom 2:4).

There is true and false repentance, "For the sorrow that is according to the will of God produces a repentance without regret, leading to salvation; but the sorrow of the world produces death" (2Co 7:10).