Chariot

See Chariouts

Chariot. A vehicle used either for warlike or peaceful purposes, but, most commonly, the former. The Jewish chariots were patterned after the Egyptian, and consisted of a single pair of wheels on an axle, upon which was a cart with high front and sides, but open at the back.

The earliest mention of chariots, in Scripture, is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh’s second chariot. Gen 41:43. Later on, we find mention of Egyptian chariots for a warlike purpose. Exo 14:7.

In this point of view, chariots among some nations of antiquity, as elephants among others, may be regarded as filling the place of heavy artillery in modern times, so that the military power of a nation might be estimated by the number of its chariots. Thus, Pharaoh, in pursuing Israel, took with him 600 chariots.

The Philistines, in Saul’s time, had 30,000. 1Sa 13:5. David took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 1000 chariots, 2Sa 8:4, and from the Syrians, a little later, 700, 2Sa 10:18, who in order to recover their ground, collected 32,000 chariots. 1Ch 19:7.

Up to this time, the Israelites possessed few or no chariots. They were first introduced by David, 2Sa 8:4, who raised and maintained a force of 1400 chariots, 1Ki 10:25, by taxation on certain cities agreeably to eastern custom in such matters. 1Ki 9:19; 1Ki 10:25.

From this time, chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war. 1Ki 22:34; 2Ki 9:16; 2Ki 9:21; 2Ki 13:7; 2Ki 13:14; 2Ki 18:24; 2Ki 23:30; Isa 31:1.

Most commonly two persons, and sometimes three, rode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carry the state umbrella. 1Ki 22:34; 2Ki 9:20; 2Ki 9:24; Act 8:38. The prophets allude frequently to chariots as typical of power. Psa 20:7; Psa 104:3; Jer 51:21; Zec 6:1.

Chariot, sometimes including the horses (2Sa 8:4; 2Sa 10:18). Mentioned first in Gen 41:43, where Joseph rides in Pharaoh’s second chariot; also Gen 46:29. In the Egyptian monuments they occur to the number of 27,000 in records of the reign of Rameses II, 1300 B.C., and even earlier in the 18th dynasty 1530 B.C., when Amosis I used them against the shepherd kings. A leading purpose of chariots was war. Pharaoh followed Israel with 600 chosen chariots (Exo 14:7). The Canaanites of the valleys armed theirs apparently with iron scythes (Jos 17:18; Jdg 1:19). Jabin had 900, which enabled him to "oppress the children of Israel mightily," because of their sins (Jdg 4:3). The Philistines in Saul’s time had 30,000 (1Sa 13:5). David took from Hadarezer of Zobah 1,000, and from the Syrians 700; these to retrieve their loss gathered 32,000 (1Ch 19:7).

God forbad their use to His people, lest they should depend on human help rather than on Him (Deu 17:16; Deu 20:1; Psa 20:7), also lest there should be a turning of the elect nation’s heart back to Egypt and its corrupt ways. Solomon from carnal state policy allied himself to Egypt, and disregarded God’s prohibition, as Samuel foretold would be the case if Israel, not content with God, should set up a human king (1Sa 8:11-12). Solomon had 1,400 chariots, and bought each out of Egypt at 600 shekels of silver, and a horse for 150; and taxed certain cities for the cost, according to eastern usage (1Ki 9:19; 1Ki 10:26; 1Ki 10:29). In Exo 14:7 translate "captains (literally, men of the king’s council of 30) over the whole of them." Not as some thought, "third men in every one of them."

For the Egyptian chariots only carried two, the driver and the warrior. The Assyrian chariots (Nah 2:3-4) depicted on the monuments often contain a third, namely, the warrior’s shieldbearer. In Exo 14:9 "horsemen" are mentioned. Hengstenberg thinks rekeb does not mean cavalry, as they are not depicted in the Egyptian monuments, but merely "riders in chariots." But Diodorus Siculus states that Rameses II had 24,000 cavalry. Egyptian art seems even in later times, when certainly cavalry were employed, to have avoided depicting horsemen. The language of Exo 15:1; Isa 31:1, can be reconciled with either view. Ancient papyri allude to mounting on horseback (Cook, in Speaker’s Commentary). The men in the chariot always stood.

The Egyptian chariot consisted of a semicircular frame of wood with straight sides, resting on the axle-tree of a pair of wheels; and on the frame a rail attached by leather thongs; one wooden upright in front; open at the back for mounting. On the right side the bowcase and the quiver and spearcase crossed diagonally. The horses wore only breastband and girths attached to the saddle, and a bearing rein fastened to a ring in front of it. In New Testament the only chariots mentioned are that of the Ethiopian eunuch of Candace (Act 8:28-29; Act 8:38), and Rev 9:9. The Persians sacrificed horses to the sun; so the Jews under the idolatrous Manasseh dedicated chariots and horses to the sun (2Ki 23:11). Josiah burned these chariots with fire, thus making the object of their superstition, fire, to consume their instruments of worship.

(properly מֶרְכָּבָה, merkabah´, a vehicle for riding; ἄρμα), a car used either for warlike or peaceful purposes, but most commonly the former. Of the latter use there is but one probable instance as regards the Jews (1Ki 18:44), and as regards other nations, but few (Gen 41:43; Gen 46:29; 2Ki 5:9; Act 8:28). The Scriptures employ different words to denote carriages of different sorts, but it is not in every case easy to distinguish the kind of vehicle which these words severally denote. We are now, however, through the discovery of ancient sculptures and paintings, in possession of much new information respecting the chariots of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Pera, which are, in fact, mentioned in the Scriptures. There has been some speculation as to any difference of meaning between the above word and the briefer (masc.) form מֶרְכָּב, merkab´, which occurs in three passages only. In 1Ki 5:6, the latter obviously means chariots, taken collectively. But in Lev 15:9 (Auth. Vers. "saddle"), and Son 3:10 ("the covering"), it has been understood by some to denote the seat of a chariot. To this view there is the fatal objection that ancient chariots had no seats. It appears to denote the seat of a litter (the only vehicle that had a seat), and its name merkab may have been derived from the general resemblance of the body of a litter (distinguished from the canopy, etc.), both in form and use, to that of a chariot. Another still simpler form, the word רֵכֵב, re´keb (with the analogous forms רַכְבָּה, rikbah´, Eze 27:20, and רְכוֹב, rekob´, Psa 104:3), from the same root, appears to signify a carriage of any kind, and is especially used with reference to large bodies of carriages, and hence most generally of war-chariots; for chariots were anciently seldom seen together in large numbers except in war. It is applied to the war- chariots of the Egyptians (Exo 14:9), the Canaanites (Jos 17:18; Jdg 1:19; Jdg 4:3), the Hebrews (2Ki 9:21; 2Ki 9:24; 2Ki 10:16), the Syrians (2Ki 5:9), the Persians (Isa 21:7; Isa 21:9). To this corresponds the ῥέδη of Rev 18:13; the Latin rheda, a carriage with four wheels, an improvement of later times. By a comparison of these references with those passages in which merkabah occurs, we find the two words applied to all sorts of carriages indifferently and interchangeably, just as we should say either "carriage" or "coach" — "neither of which is specific, and both of which differ more from each other than the Hebrew words in question — to denote the same vehicle. Indeed, there are passages in which both words are manifestly applied to the same identical vehicle, as in 2Ki 5:9; 2Ki 5:21, and 1Ki 22:35; 1Ki 22:38, where some have endeavored to make out a difference between the Hebrews terms. There is another word once rendered chariot, viz. עֲגָלָה(cgalah´, Psa 46:9), but it denotes a plaustrum, cart, or wagon drawn by oxen. SEE CART.

The only other words rendered "chariot" in the Bible are אִפַּרְיוֹן(qappiryon´, Son 3:9), which the etymol, as well as the rendering in the Sept. and Vulg., shows to have been a portable sedan or palanquisn, SEE LITTER, and הֹצֶן, (ho´tsen, only in Eze 23:24), which, according to etymology and the Rabbins, means weapons or defensive armor. It is demonstrated that the word rekeb, rendered "horsemen," does not mean "cavalry," but merely riders in the chariots — in other words, chariotwarriors; for Exo 14:7, which gives the first account of the Egyptian army, says, "he took six hundred chosen chariots, and all the chariots of Egypt, and captains over every one of them" (or in each). The "horsemen" in Exo 14:9 and the subsequent verses means literally "riders," not upon the horses, but in the chariots. Hence, though Moses’s song of triumph mentions the "horse and his rider" (Exo 15:1), yet Exo 15:4 clearly indicates that by rider chariot-rider is understood: "Pharaoh’s chariots and his host hath he cast into the sea; his chosen captains also (chariot warriors) are drowned in the Red Sea." SEE HORSE.

The earliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh’s second chariot (Gen 41:43), and later when he went in his own chariot to meet his father on his entrance into Egypt from Canaan (Gen 46:29). In the funeral procession of Jacob chariots also formed a part, possibly by way of escort or as a guard of honor (Gen 50:9). The next mention of Egyptian chariots is for a warlike purpose (Exo 14:7). In this point of view chariots .among some nations of antiquity, as elephants among others, may le regarded as filling the place of heavy artillery in modern times, so that the military power of a nation might be estimated by the number of its chariots. Thus Pharaoh, in pursuing Israel, took with him 600 chariots. The Canaanites of the valleys of Palestine were enabled to resist the Israelites successfully in consequence of the number of their chariots of iron, i.e. perhaps armed with iron scythes (Jos 17:18; Jdg 1:19; see Schickendanz, De curribus falcatis, Zerbst. 1754). Jabin, king of Canaan, had 900 chariots (Jdg 4:3).

The Philistines in Saul’s time had 30,000, a number chich seems excessive (1Sa 13:5; but comp. the Sept. and Joseph. Ant. 6:6, 1). David took from Hadadezer, hing of Zobah, 1000 chariots (2Sa 8:4), and from the Syrians a little later 700 (2Sa 10:18), who, in order to recover their ground, collected 52,000 chariots (1Ch 19:7). Up to this time the Israelites possessed few or no chariots, partly, no doubt, in consequence of the theocratic prohibition against multiplying horses, for fear of intercourse with Egypt, and the regal despotism implied in the possession of them (Deu 17:16; 1Sa 8:11-12). — But to some extent David (2Sa 8:4), and in a much greater degree Solomon, broke through the prohibition from seeing the necessity of placing his kingdom, under its altered circumstances, on a footing of military equality or superiority toward other nations. He raised, therefore, and maintained a force of 1400 chariots (1Ki 10:25) by taxation on certain cities, agreeably to Eastern custom in such matters (1Ki 9:19; 1Ki 10:25; Xenoph. Anzab. 1:4, 9). The chariots themselves, and also the horses, were imported chiefly from Egypt, and the cost of each chariot was 600 shekels of silver, and of each horse 150 (1Ki 10:29). SEE SHEKEL.

From this time chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war, though the supplies of them and of horses appear to have been still drawn from Egypt (1Ki 22:34; 2Ki 9:16; 2Ki 9:21; 2Ki 13:7; 2Ki 13:14; 2Ki 18:24; 2Ki 23:10; Isa 31:1). The prophets also allude frequently to chariots as typical of power (Psa 20:7; Psa 104:3; Jer 51:21 : Zec 6:1). Chariots of other nations are likewise mentioned, as of Assyria (2Ki 19:23; Eze 23:24), Syria (2 Samuel 8, and 2Ki 6:14-15), Persia (Isa 22:6); and, lastly, Antiochus Eupator is said to have had 300 chariots armed with scythes (2Ma 13:2). In the N.T. the only mention made of a chariot, except in Rev 9:9, is in the case of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian eunuch of Queen Candace, who is described as sitting in his chariot reading (Act 8:28-29; Act 8:38). SEE RIDER.

Jewish chariots were no doubt imitated from Egyptian models, if not actually imported from Egypt. These appear to have come into use not earlier than the 18th dynasty (B.C. 1530). The war-chariot, from which the chariot used in peace did not essentially differ, was extremely simple in its construction. It consisted, as appears both from Egyptian paintings and reliefs, as well as from an actual specimen preserved at Florence, of a nearly semicircular wooden frame with straightened sides, resting posteriorly on the axle-tree of a pair of wheels, and supporting a rail of wood or ivory attached to the frame by leathern thongs and one wooden upright in front. The floor of the car was made of rope net-work, intended to give a more springy footing to the occupants. The car was mounted from the back, which was open, and the sides were strengthened and ornamented with leather and metal binding.

Attached to the off or right-hand side, and crossing each other diagonally, were the bow-case, and inclining backwards, the quiver and spear-case. If two persons were in the chariot a second bow-case was added. The wheels, of which there were 2, had 6 spokes: those of peace chariots had sometimes 4, fastened to the axle by a linch-pin secured by a thong. There were no traces; but the horses, which were often of different colors, wore only a breast-band and girths, which were attached to the saddle, together with head furniture, consisting of cheek-pieces, throat-lash, head-stall, and straps across the forehead and nose. A bearing-rein was fastened to a ring or hook in front of the saddle, and the driving-reins passed through other rings on each side of both horses. From the central point of the saddle rose a short stem of metal, ending in a knob, whether for use or mere ornament is not certain. The driver stood on the off side, and in discharging his arrow hung his whip from the wrist. In some instances the king is represented alone in his chariot, with the reins fastened round his body, thus using his weapons with his hands at liberty. Most commonly two persons, and sometimes three, rode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carry the state umbrella (2Ki 9:20; 2Ki 9:24; 1Ki 22:34; Act 8:38). A second chariot usually accompanied the king to battle, to be used in case of necessity (2 Chronicles 35:34).

On peaceable occasions the Egyptian gentleman sometimes drove alone in his chariot, attended by servants on foot. The horses wore housings to protect them from heat and insects. For royal personages and women of rank, an umbrella was carried by a bearer or fixed upright in the chariot. Sometimes mules were driven instead of horses, and in travelling sometimes oxen; but for travelling purposes the sides of the chariot appear to have been closed. One instance occurs of a 4-wheeled car, which (like the τετράκυκλος ἄμαξα of Herod. 2:63) was used for religious purposes. See CART. The processes of manufacture of chariots and harness are fully illustrated by existing sculptures, in which also are represented the chariots used by neigh. boring nations (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt. 1:368, 386; 2:75, 76, 2d ed.).

The earliest Egyptian chariot noticed in Scripture (Gen 41:43) was doubtless a state-chariot; but, among the Egyptians, it does not appear to have been different from the war-chariot, the splendid military appointments of which rendered it fit for purposes of royal pomp. Hence, although the same word (מֶרְכָּבָה, merkabah) is again used for chariots of state in Gen 46:29; 1Sa 8:11; 2Sa 15:1, it undoubtedly denotes a war-chariot in Exo 15:4; Joe 2:5. In Isa 2:7, the same word appears to comprehend chariots of every kind which were found in cities. In fact, chariots anciently in the East were used almost entirely for purposes of state or of war, being very rarely employed by private persons. We also observe that where private carriages were known, as in Egypt, they were of the same shape as those used in war, only having less complete military accoutrements, although retaining the case for arrows. One of the most interesting of the Egyptian paintings represents a person of quality arriving late at an entertainment in his curricle, drawn (like all the Egyptian chariots) by two horses (one hidden by the other in profile). He is attended by a number of running footmen, one of whom hastens forward to knock at the door of the house, another advances to take the reins, a third bears a stool to assist his master in alighting, and most of them carry their sandals in their hands, that they may run with the more ease. This conveys a lively illustration of such passages as 1Sa 8:11; 2Sa 15:1.

The principal distinction between these private chariots and those actually used in war was, as appears from the monuments, that in the former the party drove himself, whereas in war the chariot, as among the Greeks, often contained a second person to drive it, that the warrior might be at liberty to employ his weapons with the more effect. But this was not always the case; for in the Egyptian monuments we often see even royal personages alone in their chariots, warring furiously, with the reins lashed round their waist. So it appears that Jehu (who certainly rode in a war-chariot) drove himself, for his peculiar style of driving was recognised at a considerable distance (2Ki 9:20). The Egyptians used horses in the equipment of an armed force before Jacob and his sons had settled in Goshen; they had chariots of war, and mounted asses and mules, and therefore could not be ignorant of the art of riding; but for ages after that period Arab nations rode on the bare back, and guided the animals with a wand. Others. and probably the shepherd invaders, noosed a single rope in a slip-knot round the lower jaw, forming an imperfect bridle with only one rein; a practice still in vogue among the Bedouins. Thus cavalry were but little formidable, compared with chariots, until a complete command over the horse was obtained by the discovery of a true bridle. This seems to have been first introduced by chariot-drivers, and there are figures of well-constructed harness, reins, and mouth-pieces in very early Egyptian monuments, representing both native and foreign chariots of war. In fighting from chariots great dexterity was shown by the warrior, not only in handling his weapons, but also in stepping out upon the pole to the horses’ shoulders, in order the better to attain his enemies; and the charioteer was an important person, sometimes equal in rank to the warrior himself. Both the kingdoms of Judah and Israel had war-chariots, and, from the case of king Josiah at the battle of Megiddo, it is clear they had also travelling vehicles, for, being wounded, he quitted his fighting- chariot, and in a second, evidently more commodious, he was brought to Jerusalem (2Ch 35:24). Chariots of war continued to be used in Syria in the time of the Maccabees (2Ma 13:5), and in Britain when Caesar invaded the island (Bell. Gall. 4:29).

In the prophecy of Nahum, who was of the first captivity, and resident (if not born) at Elkosh in Assyria, there is much allusion to chariots, suggested doubtless by their frequency before his eyes in the streets of Nineveh and throughout the Assyrian empire. In fact, when prophesying the downfall of Nineveh, he gives a particular and animated description (Nah 2:3-4) of their action in the streets of the great city:

The shield of his heroes is reddened, The men of prowess are crimsoned [in dress]: With the fire of irons [flashing steel armatures] is the chariot in the day of his array,

And the cypresses [lances] are brandished; In the streets will madden the chariot-force, They will race in the broad places; Their appearance is as the torches, As the lightnings will they rush.

Abundant illustrations of this passage occur on the recently discovered sculptures of Nineveh and Babylon. They are minutely described by Layard (Nineveh, 2:268 sq.). The earlier Assyrian war-chariot and harness did not differ essentially from the Egyptian. Two or three persons stood in the car, but the driver is sometimes represented as standing on the near side, while a third warrior in the chariot held a shield to protect the archer in discharging his arrow. The car appears to have had closed sides. The war- chariot wheels had 6 spokes; the state or peace chariot 8 or more; and a third person in state processions carried the royal umbrella. A third horse, like the Greek παρήορος, was generally attached (Layard, Nineveh, 2:350). In later times the third horse was laid aside, the wheels were made higher, and had 8 spokes, and the front of the car, to which the quiver was removed from its former side position, was made square instead of round. The cars were more highly ornamented, paneled, and inlaid with valuable woods and metals, and painted. The embroidered housings, in which in earlier times the horses were clothed, were laid aside, and plumes and tassels used to decorate their necks and foreheads (Layard, Nineveh, 2:353, 356; Nineveh and Babylon, p. 341, 587, 603, 618; Mon. of Nin. 2d series, pl. 24; comp. Eze 27:20). Chariots used for other purposes than that of war, especially in hunting, were also found sculptured on the Assyrian monuments, as well as occasionally carts for the transportation of persons or baggage.

The Persian art, as appears from the sculptures at Persepolis, and also at Koyounjik, shows great similarity to the Assyrian; but the procession represented at the former place contains a chariot or car with wheels of 12 spokes, while, from the sculptures at the latter, it appears that the Elamites, or Persians, besides chariots containing two persons, which were sometimes drawn by four horses, used a kind of cart, drawn by a single mule or more, consisting of a stage on high wheels, capable of holding five or six persons, of whom the driver sat on a low stool, with his legs hanging on each side of the pole (Isa 22:6; Eze 23:24; see Xenoph. Cyrop. 4:3, 1; 2:22; Niebuhr, Voyage, 2:105; Chardin, Voyage, 7:257, pl. 59; Layard, Nin. & Bab. p. 447,449; Olearius, Travels, p. 302). Chariots armed with scythes (ἃρματα δρεπανήφορα, Xen. Anab. 1:7, 10) may perhaps be intended by the " chariots of iron" of the Canaanites; they are mentioned as part of the equipment of Antiochus (2Ma 13:2), and of Darius (Diod. Sic. 17:53; Appian, Syr. 32). Xenophon mentions a Persian chariot with 4 poles and 8 horses (Cyrop. 6:4). The Persian custom of sacrificing horses to the Sun (Xen. Cyrop. 8:3, 12), seems to have led to offerings of chariots and horses for the same object among the Jewish monarchs who fell into idolatry (Eze 8:17; 2Ki 22:11;. see P. della Valle, p. 255). SEE WAGON.

Not very different from the Persian chariot is one represented on a coin found at Babylon, but somewhat ruder; but the spokes of the wheels are eight, as in the Assyrian chariot. This coin has given occasion to much unsound speculation in the attempt to connect it with the history of Daniel. SEE BABYLON.

Among the Greeks and Romans, chariots were used at all times for purposes of war, and the chariot-races of the "Isthmian Games" were especially famous (see Smith’s Dict, of Class. Antiquity, s.v. Currus). SEE CHARIOT-RACE.

Among the parts of wheel-carriages mentioned in the Scriptures are:

1, the wheel, אוֹפָן(ophan , Exo 14:25, etc.); also גַּלְגָּל (gilgal´, Isa 28:28) or גִּלְגִּל (gilgal´, Isa 5:28; Eze 10:2; Eze 10:6; Eze 23:24; Eze 26:10; id. Chald. Dan 7:9);

2, the rim, גָּב(gab, 1Ki 7:33; Eze 1:18);

3, the spokes, חַשֻׁקַים(chishshukim´, 1Ki 6:33);

4, the hub, חַשֻׁרַים(chishshurim´, 1Ki 7:33); 5, the axle, יָד(yad, 1Ki 7:32-33). To harness (yoke) the horses or other animals is designated by אָסִר (asar´, Gen 41:29; 1Sa 6:7; 1Ki 18:14), or רָחִם (ratham´, Mic 1:13); also רָכִב (rakab´, Hos 10:11), which properly signifies to ride or drive. SEE WHEEL.

The word chariots is sometimes used figuratively for hosts or armies (Psa 68:17; 2Ki 6:17); and Elijah, by his prayers and counsels, and power with God, was "the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof" (2Ki 2:12; see Rosh, De curru Israelis, Bautz. 1780), inasmuch as he did more for them than all the chariots they could muster (Psa 20:7; Isa 3:1). SEE WAR.

The term "chariot" is likewise used poetically in Scripture to designate the rapid agencies of God in nature (Psa 104:3; Psa 68:17; Isa 66:15; Hab 3:8).

Except in Son 3:9, where the word is appiryon and signifies ’sedan, portable couch,’ the chariots were vehicles with two wheels, used either for travelling or for war: they are often seen portrayed on Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. Gen 41:43; Gen 50:9; 1Ki 4:26; Eze 23:24; Act 8:28; Rev 9:9. In Rev 18:13 the word is ῥέδα, and some describe it as a vehicle with four wheels. The CHARIOT MAN in 2Ch 18:33 is the driver, as in 1Ki 22:34. A CHARIOT OF FIRE and horses of fire appeared when Elijah was carried up into heaven. 2Ki 2:11-12. When the king of Syria sought to take Elisha at Dothan he was protected by invisible chariots of fire. 2Ki 6:17.

By: Emil G. Hirsch, Wilhelm Nowack

Vehicles are designated in Hebrew chiefly by two expressions, "'agalah" and "rakab," with "merkab" and "merkabah" derived from the latter. The former denotes the wagon used for heavy loads and general work, the name being connected with the root "to roll"; while the latter is the chariot of war or of state. Wagons for carrying burdens or persons are found among the different peoples of antiquity, having displaced at an early time the sledge and the drag on rollers, drawn by men or oxen (compare the pictures in Wilkinson, "Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians," iii. 324). Early Egyptian monuments show also a frame like a litter, which was fastened between asses and used to carry persons.

Egyptian Chariot.(From Champollion, "Monuments de l'Egypte.")

Hittite Chariot.(From Champollion, "Monuments de l'Egypte.")

Originally the wheels of the wagons were solid disks (ib. i. 369), but a more artistic type, consisting of hub, spokes, and fellies, was gradually evolved. The spokes, "ḥishshuḳim" (I Kings vii. 33), sprang from the hollow cylinder in the center of the wheel ("ofan" or "galgal"), that is, from the hub, "ḥishshurim" (I Kings vii. 33), around the stationary axletree, "yad," and connected it with the rim or the fellies, "gebim" (I Kings vii. 33; Ezek. i. 18, x. 12). In extant Assyrian illustrations the wheels generally have eight spokes, while in the Egyptian wagons four, or more frequently six, spokes are found. The body of the wagon and the pole were connected directly with the axletree. The pole had a yoke arranged for two animals only, so that each additional animal had to be harnessed separately, and not infront, but on the side of the first two animals. As horses did not come into general use among the Israelites until the time of Solomon, oxen were originally the chief draft animals (I Sam. vi. 7), while asses were generally used for the saddle. That the Israelites in very early times had wagons for carrying burdens, is evident from I Sam. vi. 7 and II Sam. vi. 3. Mention is also made of threshing-wagons (Isa. xxviii. 27). There is no definite information regarding harvesting-wagons (see Amos ii. 13). It is to be noticed that the latter are not used to-day in Palestine ("Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." ix. 40, and the commentaries on Amos, l.c.). Persons traveled chiefly on asses, because the poor condition on the roads in Palestine made it difficult to use wagons to any extent, especially for long journeys. Nevertheless, the fact that the Egyptians evidently received the word (Egyptian, "'agolt"), as well as (Egyptian, "merkobt"), from the Canaanites, shows that wagon-building was known at an early date in Canaan.

War-Chariots.

War-chariots proper were also known in Canaan at an early time, for as a result of having them the Canaanites were so superior to the Israelites that the latter could not meet them in open battle on the plain (Josh. xi. 4; Judges i. 19, iv. 3; I Sam. xiii. 5). These vehicles were indeed strange to the Israelites. Although David captured chariots and horses in his war with the Syrians, he did not use them, and even hamstrung the horses (II Sam. viii. 4). It remained for Solomon to introduce war-chariots, which were stationed partly in Jerusalem and partly in other cities (I Kings ix. 19). Beginning with his time, chariots and horsemen are often mentioned in the army of the southern as well as of the northern kingdom (I Kings xvi. 9; II Kings viii. 21, xiii. 7; Isa. ii. 7; Micah v. 9). Horses were indispensable to these chariots, and the great difficulty in procuring them (II Kings vii. 13, xviii. 23) probably often induced political leanings toward Egypt (Isa. xxx. 16, xxxi. 1, xxxvi. 9).

The war-chariots doubtless resembled the Assyrian and Egyptian two-wheeled chariots, open in the back; they were not furnished with scythes, as is often stated, for the latter were introduced by the Persians. They were made of fig-tree wood, and trimmed with bronze or iron. Like those of the Assyrians, the Hittites, and others, the chariots of the Israelites probably carried three men, , the driver, the warrior proper, and the shield-bearer; while on those of the Egyptians there were generally but two men. According to I Kings x. 29 the price of a chariot imported from Egypt in the time of Solomon was 600 shekels, and that of a horse 150 shekels.

Sun-Chariots.

During the last decades of the southern kingdom mention is made of sun-horses and sun-chariots stationed in the outer court of the Temple, these being removed later by Josiah. They had been introduced at the time that syncretism was flourishing, and the cult of the sun-god had become dominant under Assyrian influence. As in the case of the Canaanite Baal (in reality the sun-god), the Assyro-Babylonian sun-god had been identified with Yhwh, and his symbols placed in the court of the Temple. Such syncretism was not altogether foreign to Hebrew ideas, for Yhwh is not only the God of heaven, but also He who rides in a chariot (Hab. iii. 8; Ps. lxviii. 18[17]) and on the Cherubim, and who descends in a chariot of fire to take His saints into heaven (II Kings ii. 11, vi. 17, xiii. 14). For God's chariot-throne see Merkabah.

Assyrian Chariot.(From Layard's "Nineveh.")

CHARIOT.—The original home of the chariot was Western Asia, from which it passed to Egypt and other countries. In OT chariots are associated mainly with war-like operations, although they also appear not infrequently as the ‘carriages,’ so to say, of kings, princes, and high dignitaries (Gen 50:9, 2Ki 5:9, Jer 17:25; cf. Act 8:28 ff. the case of the Ethiopian eunuch) in times of peace. When royal personages drove in state, they were preceded by a body of ‘runners’ (2Sa 15:1, 1Ki 1:5).

The war chariot appears to have been introduced among the Hebrews by David (2Sa 8:4 LXX [Note: Septuagint.] ), but it did not become part of the organized military equipment of the State till the reign of Solomon. This monarch is said to have organized a force of 1400 chariots (1Ki 10:26, 2Ch 1:14), which he distributed among the principal cities of his realm (1Ki 9:19; 1Ki 10:26). At this time, also, a considerable trade sprang up in connexion with the importation of chariots and horses. It was not from Egypt, however, which was never a horse-breeding country, that these were imported as stated in the corrupt text of 1Ki 10:28 f., but from two districts of Asia Minor, in the region of Cappadocia and Cilicia, named Musri and Kuë (see Skinner, Cent. Bible, in loc). In the following verse a chariot from Musri is said to have cost 600 shekels of silver (see Money), and a horse 150, hut the Gr. text gives 100 shekels and 50 shekels respectively. Similarly in 2Ki 7:6 the reference is to the chariotry of the Hittites and their allies of Musri.

Until the Macedonian period, when we first hear of chariots armed with scythes (2Ma 13:2), the war chariot of antiquity followed one general type, alike among the Assyrians and the Egyptians, the Hittites and the Syrians. It consisted of a light wooden body, which was always open behind. The axle, fitted with stout wheels with 6 or 8 spokes (for the Heb. terms see 1Ki 7:33), was set as far back as possible for the sake of greater steadiness, and consequently a surer aim. The pole was fixed into the axle, and after passing beneath the floor of the chariot was bent upwards and connected by a band of leather to the front of the chariot. The horses, two in number, were yoked to the pole. Traces were not used. In Assyrian representations a third horse sometimes appears, evidently as a reserve. The body of the chariot naturally received considerable decoration, for which, and for other details, reference may be made to Wilkinson’s Anc. Egyp. (1878), i. 224–241, and Rawlinson’s Five Great Monarchies (1864), ii. 1–21, where numerous illustrationss are also given. The ‘chariots of iron’ of the ancient Canaanites (Jos 17:16, Jdg 1:19; Jdg 4:3) were chariots of which the woodwork was strengthened hy metal plates.

In Egypt and Assyria the normal number of the occupants of a war chariot was two—the driver, who was often armed with a whip, and the combatant, an archer whose bow-case and quiver were usually attached to the right-hand side of the car. Egyptian representations of Hittite chariots, however, show three occupants, of whom the third carries a shield to protect his comrades. This was almost certainly the practice among the Hebrews also, since a frequently recurring military term, shâlîsh, signifies ‘the third man,’ presumably in such a chariot.

Mention may be made, finally, of the chariots set up at the entrance to the Temple at Jerusalem, which were destroyed by Josiah. They were doubtless dedicated originally to J″ [Note: Jahweh.] , although they are termed by the Hebrew historian ‘chariots of the sun’ (2Ki 23:11), their installation having been copied from the Babylonian custom of representing Shamash, the sun-god, riding in a chariot.

A. R. S. Kennedy.

char´i-ot (מרכּב, merkābh, מרכּבה, merkābhāh, “riding-chariot,” רכב, rekhebh, “war-chariot”; ἅρμα, hárma):

1.    Chariots of Egypt

2.    Chariots of the Canaanites

3.    Chariots of Solomon and Later Kings

4.    Chariots of the Assyrians

5.    Chariots of Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks

6.    In the New Testament

7.    Figurative Use

Literature

1. Chariots of Egypt

It is to the chariots of ancient Egypt that reference is first made in Scripture. Joseph was honored by being made to ride in the second chariot of King Pharaoh (Gen 41:43). Joseph paid honor to his father on his arrival in Goshen by meeting him in his chariot (Gen 46:29). In the state ceremonial with which the remains of Jacob were escorted to Canaan, chariots and horsemen were conspicuous (Gen 50:9). In the narrative of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt and of Pharaoh’s futile attempts to detain them the chariots and horsemen of Pharaoh figure largely (Exo 14:17, Exo 14:18, Exo 14:23, Exo 14:15; Exo 15:4, Exo 15:19). It was with the Hyksos invasion, some centuries before the Exodus, that the horse, and subsequently the chariot, were introduced for purposes of war into Egypt; and it may have been the possession of chariots that enabled those hated shepherd warriors to overpower the native Egyptians. The Egyptian chariot was distinguished by its lightness of build. It was so reduced in weight that it was possible for a man to carry his chariot on his shoulders without fatigue. The ordinary chariot was made of wood and leather, and had only two occupants, the fighting man and his shield-bearer. The royal chariots were ornamented with gold and silver, and in the battle of Megiddo Thothmes III is represented as standing in his chariot of electrum like the god of war, brandishing his lance. In the battle the victorious Egyptians captured 2, 041 horses and 924 chariots from the Syrian allies.

2. Chariots of the Canaanites

The Canaanites had long been possessed of horses and chariots when Joshua houghed their horses and burnt their chariots with fire at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:6, Jos 11:9). The chariots of iron which the Canaanites could maneuvere in the plains and valleys proved a formidable obstacle to the Complete conquest of the land (Jdg 1:19). Jabin had 900 chariots of iron, and with them he was able to oppress the children of Israel twenty years (Jdg 4:3). The Philistines of the low country and the maritime plain, of whom we read in Judges and Samuel, were a warlike people, were disciplined and well armed and their possession of chariots gave them a great advantage over the Israelites. In the war of Michmash they put into the field the incredible number of 30,000 chariots and 6,000 horsemen, only in the end to suffer a grievous defeat (1Sa 13:5; 1Sa 14:20). In the battle of Gilboa, however, the chariots and horsemen of the Philistines bore down all opposition, and proved the destruction of Saul and his house. Of these chariots there have come down to us no detailed description and no representation. But we cannot be far wrong in turning to the chariot of the Hittites as a type of the Canaanite and Philistine chariot. It is not from the monuments of the Hittites themselves, however, but from the representations of the Kheta of the Egyptian monuments, that we know what their chariots were like. Their chariotry was their chief arm of offense. The Hittite chariot was used, too, for hunting; but a heavier car with paneled sides was employed for war. The Egyptian monuments represent three Hittites in each car, a practice which differed from that of Egypt and attracted attention. Of the three, one guided the chariot, another did the fighting with sword and lance, and the third was the shield-bearer.

3. Chariots of Solomon and Later Kings

The Israelites living in a mountainous country were tardy in adopting the chariot for purposes of war. David houghed all the chariot horses of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and “reserved of them for a hundred chariots” (2Sa 8:4), and Adonijah prepared for himself chariots and horsemen with a view to contest the throne of his father (1Ki 1:5). But Solomon was the first in Israel to acquire chariots and horses on a national scale, and to build cities for their accommodation (1Ki 9:19). In Massoretic Text of the Old Testament we read that Solomon had agents who received droves of horses from Egypt, and it is added: “And a chariot came up and went out of Egypt for 600 shekels of silver, and a horse for 150; and so for all the kings of the Hittites, and for the kings of Syria, did they bring them out by their means” (1Ki 10:29). On the strength of a warrantable emendation of the text it is now proposed to read the preceding (1Ki 10:28): “And Solomon’s import of horses was from Muṣri and from Kuë; the king’s traders received them from Kuë at a price” - where Muṣri and Kuë are North Syria and Cilicia. No doubt it was Egypt out of which the nation was forbidden by the Deuteronomic law to multiply horses (Deu 17:16), but on the other hand the statement of Ezek (Eze 27:14) that Israel derived horses, chargers and mules not from Egypt but from Togarmah - North Syria and Asia Minor - agrees with the new rendering (Burney, Notes on Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings, in the place cited.). From Solomon’s time onward chariots were in use in both kingdoms. Zimri, who slew Elah, son of Baasha, king of Israel, was captain of half his chariots (1Ki 16:9). It was when sitting in his chariot in disguise beside the driver that Ahab received his fatal wound at Ramoth-gilead (1Ki 22:34). The floor of the royal chariot was a pool of blood, and “they washed the chariot by the pool of Samaria” (1Ki 22:35, 1Ki 22:38). It was in his war-chariot that his servants carried Josiah dead from the fatal field of Megiddo (2Ki 23:30). The chief pieces of the Hebrew chariot were (1) The pole to which the two horses were yoked, (2) The axle - resting upon two wheels with six or eight spokes (1Ki 7:33) - into which the pole was fixed, (3) a frame or body open behind, standing upon the axle and fitted by a leather band to the pole. The chariots of iron of which we read (Jdg 4:3) were of wood strengthened or studded with iron. Like that of the Hittite, the Hebrew chariot probably carried three men, although in the chariot of Ahab (1Ki 22:34) and in that of Jehu (2Ki 9:24 f) we read of only two.

4. Chariots of the Assyrians

In the later days when the Assyrians overran the lands of the West, the Israelites had to face the chariots and the hosts of Sennacherib and of the kings (2Ki 19:23). And they faced them with chariots of their own. An inscription of Shalmaneser II of Assyria tells how in the battle of Karkar (854 bc) Ahab of the land of Israel had put into the field 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers. But the Assyrian chariotry was too numerous and powerful for Israel. The Assyrian chariot was larger and heavier than the Egyptian or the Hebrew: it had usually three and sometimes four occupants (Maspéro, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 322). When we read in Nahum’s prophecy of “chariots flashing with steel,” “rushing to and fro in the broad ways” (Nah 2:3, Nah 2:4), it is of the Assyrian chariots that we are to think being hastily got together for the defense of Nineveh.

5. Chariots of Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks

In early Babylonian inscriptions of the 3rd millennium before Christ there is evidence of the use of the war-chariots, and Nebuchadrezzar in his campaigns to the West had chariots as part of his victorious host (Jer 47:3). It was the Persians who first employed scythed chariots in war; and we find Antiochus Eupator in the Seleucid period equipping a Greek force against Judea which had 300 chariots armed with scythes (2 Macc 13:2).

6. In the New Testament

In the New Testament the chariot is only twice mentioned. Besides the chariot in which the Ethiopian eunuch was traveling when Philip the evangelist made up to him (Act 8:28, Act 8:29, Act 8:38), there is only the mention of the din of war-chariots to which the onrush of locusts in Apocalyptic vision is compared (Rev 9:9).

7. Figurative Use

In the figurative language of Scripture, the chariot has a place. It is a tribute to the powerful influence of Elijah and Elisha when they are separately called “the chariots of Israel and the horsemen thereof” (2Ki 2:12; 2Ki 13:14). The angelic hosts are declared to be God’s chariots, twice ten thousand, thousands upon thousands (Psa 68:17). But chariots and horses themselves are a poor substitute for the might of God (Psa 20:7). God Himself is represented as riding upon His chariots of salvation for the defense of His people (Hab 3:8). In the Book of Zec, the four chariots with their horses of various colors have an apocalyptic significance (Zec 6:1-15). In the worship of the host of heaven which prevailed in the later days of the kingdom of Judah, “the chariots of the sun” (see article) were symbols which led the people into gross idolatry and King Josiah burnt them with fire (2Ki 23:11).

Literature

Nowack, Hebrew Archaeology, I, 366 f; Garstang, Land of the Hittites, 363 f; Maspéro, Struggle of the Nations and Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria; Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, II, 1-21.

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Psa 20:7 (b) It indicates that some people trust in human expedients and schemes of their own for deliverance. We trust not in our own resources, nor wits, nor wisdom.

Psa 76:6 (b) This is a type of the power of GOD to overcome man’s resistance and rebellion.

Psa 104:3 (a) The clouds are described as the vehicles upon which the Lord is carried whithersoever He will.

Jer 4:13 (b) This is a description of the invincible power of GOD. Just as man cannot control the coming and the going of the clouds, so man cannot control GOD’s movements.

When the Israelites entered Canaan under Joshua, they were successful in conquering the hill country, but had difficulty in conquering the plains. The reason for this was that the local Canaanites were well equipped with chariots (Jos 11:4; Jos 17:16; Jdg 1:19; Jdg 4:13; 1Sa 13:5).

The use of chariots did not become common in Israel till the time of David, when Israel conquered many of the peoples of the plains and seized their chariots (2Sa 8:3-4; 2Sa 15:1). During the reign of Solomon, Israel’s chariot forces were expanded considerably, and from his time on they were an important part of Israel’s army (1Ki 4:26; 1Ki 9:22; 1Ki 10:26; 1Ki 20:21; 1Ki 22:35; 2Ki 8:21; 2Ki 9:21; 2Ki 10:2; 2Ki 13:7). The armies of other nations likewise relied heavily on chariots (1Ki 22:31; 2Ki 6:11-14; 2Ki 18:24; 2Ki 19:23; see also WAR).

A small, two-wheeled cart pulled

by horses and used in war.