Birds

8 sources

A Symbolical Dictionary by Charles Daubuz (1720)

Birds (of prey) signify armies who come to prey upon a country. Isa 18:6; Eze 31:13; Rev 19:17. See Jer 12:9; Eze 32:4; Eze 39:17. The reason of the metaphor is plain. As birds of prey feed upon carcases; so those that take the goods of other men eat as it were their flesh; which, in the symbolical language, always signifies riches or substance; as may be seen under the word FLESH.

Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature by John Kitto (1856) ↑

Birds may be defined oviparous vertebrated animals, organized for flight.

In the Mosaic law, birds were distinguished as clean and unclean: the first being allowed for the table, because they fed on grain, seeds, and vegetables; and the second forbidden, because they subsisted on flesh and carrion. The birds most anciently used in sacrifice were, it seems, turtle-doves and pigeons. In Kitto’s Physical History of Palestine there is a more complete notice than exists elsewhere of the actual ornithology of the Holy Land.

American Tract Society Bible Dictionary by American Tract Society (1859) ↑

Birds, like other animals, were divided by Moses into clean and unclean; the former might be eaten, the latter not. The general ground of distinction is, that those which feed on grain or seeds are clean; while those which devour flesh, fish, or carrion, are unclean. Turtledoves, young pigeons, and perhaps some other kinds of birds, were prescribed in the Mosaic law as offerings, Lev 5:7-10 14:4-7 Luk 2:24 .\par There is great difficulty in accurately determining the different species of birds prohibited in Lev 11:13-19 Deu 14:11-20, and the proper version of the Hebrew names. The information we have respecting them may be found under the names by which they are translated in our Bible.\par Moses, to inculcate humanity on the Israelites, ordered them, if they found a bird’s nest, not to take the dam with the young, but to suffer the old one to fly away, and to take the young only, Deu 22:6,7 .\par Cages for singing birds are alluded to in Jer 5:27 ; and snares in Pro 7:23 Ecc 9:12 . Birds of prey are emblems of destroying hosts, Isa 46:11 Jer 12:9 Eze 32:4 Jer 19:17-19 ; and the Lord comes to the defense of his people with the swiftness of the eagle, Isa 31:5 .\par

Smith's Bible Dictionary by William Smith (1863) ↑

Birds. See Sparrow.

New and Concise Bible Dictionary by George Morrish (1899) ↑

These are employed as symbols of evil agents: as, in the dream of Pharaoh’s baker, the birds ate the bakemeats he was carrying on his head, Gen 40:17; and in the parable of the Sower the fowls or birds which devoured the seed by the wayside are interpreted by Christ to signify ’the wicked one.’ Mat 13:4; Mat 13:19. In the parable of the Mustard Seed the kingdom of heaven becomes a great system with roots in the earth, under the protection of which the birds of the air find shelter. Mat 13:31-32. The Greek is πετεινόν, the same in the two parables.

Jewish Encyclopedia by Isidore Singer (ed.) (1906) ↑

By: Morris Jastrow, Jr., Wilhelm Nowack, Louis Ginzberg, Kaufmann Kohler

—Biblical Data:

The general designation for winged animals is "'of" ( birds , Hosea ix. 11; Isa. xvi. 2) or "'of kanaf" ( birds , Gen. i. 21), "ẓippor" ( birds , Gen. xv. 10), or "ẓippor kanaf" ( birds , Deut. iv. 17; Ps. cxlviii. 10), or "ba'al kanaf" ( birds , Prov. i. 17). The expression "ẓippor," however, denotes an individual bird in distinction from "'of," the generic term. "'Ayiṭ" ( birds , Isa. xviii. 6; Gen. xv. 11) denotes birds of prey; compare "ayyah" ( birds , Lev. xi. 14; Deut. xiv. 13).

Domesticated Birds.

The frequent mention of birds in the Bible shows that they abounded in Palestine, in which country many birds are found at the present time. The only domesticated birds among the Israelites were the dove ("yonah," birds ) and the turtle-dove ("tor," birds ). Endeavors were probably made to lure the shy rock-pigeon to the neighborhood of dwellings and tame it by providing suitable nesting-places. Neither the Hebrews nor the Egyptians knew of poultry until the contact with the Medes and Persians, who in their advance toward the west introduced the breeding of chickens. At the time of Jesus chicken-breeding was quite common in Palestine (compare Matt. xxiii. 37, xxvi. 75; Luke xiii. 34).

Though representations of ducks are found on Egyptian monuments, it is doubtful whether the Israelites knew of them; and the meaning of "barburim abusim" ( birds , I Kings v. 3 [A. V. iv. 23]), "fatted fowl," which is sometimes explained as "ducks," may be questioned. Sparrows evidently were as numerous in olden times as today, although the term "ẓippor," by which they were designated, also means small birds in general (compare στρουθίον, Tobit ii. 10). Then, as now, the sparrow was used as food (Matt. x. 29; Luke xii. 6). The partridge ("ḳore" [ birds ], I Sam. xxvi. 20; Jer. xvii. 11) also abounded, or, to be more exact, the ptarmigan, a species of the red-legged partridge which lives in mountains and waste places.

The following migratory birds are mentioned (1) The swallow ("sus," birds , perhaps birds , Isa. xxxviii. 14, for which Jer. viii. 7 has birds . Since in the Septuagint birds is missing in both passages, the word is perhaps only an explanatory gloss. It may also be questioned whether "deror" ( birds , Ps. lxxxiv. 4; Prov. xxvi. 2) means the swallow. Whenever the latter is mentioned as a migratory bird, the swift is probably meant. (2) The quail ("selaw," birds ), which in September and October gathered in immense flocks on the shores of the Mediterranean, in order to migrate to the warmer regions of Asia and Africa. In early spring it returned northward, flying mostly with the wind (Ex. xvi. 13; Num. xi. 31; Ps. cv. 40). (3) The stork ("ḥasidah," birds ), mentioned as a migratory bird (Jer. viii. 7) which nests on the cypress-tree (Ps. civ. 17; compare Job xxxix. 13 et seq.; Zech. v. 9). (4) "Anafa" ( birds , Lev. xi. 19; Deut. xiv. 18), which means perhaps a heron, or is a generic name for the different species of heron.

Birds of Prey.

The following birds of prey ("'ayit") are mentioned: (1) "Shaḥaf" ( birds , Deut. xiv. 15), according to the Septuagint and the Vulgate, the gull (larus), which abounded in different species. But perhaps a kind of hawk or falcon is meant, which the Arabians call "sa'af." (2) The eagle ("nesher," birds ), which is often mentioned because of the lightning-like rapidity with which it pounces upon its prey (Hosea viii. 1; Hab. i. 8). Sometimes the word "nesher" includes also the vulture, which is as large as an eagle, and which in the East is found much oftener than the eagle. Micah i. 16 refers probably to the vulture, perhaps to the carrion kite (Vultur percnopterus; compare Matt. xxiv. 28; Luke xvii. 37), distinguished from the eagle by its bald head and neck. The lammergeier is perhaps meant by (3) "peres" ( birds , Deut. xiv. 12; compare Tristram, "The Fauna and Flora of Palestine," p. 94). Some take it to signify the sea-eagle, which the Septuagint and the Vulgate identify with (4) "'azniyyah ( birds , ib. 12), also a species of eagle or vulture. (5) "Raḥam" ( birds , Lev. xi. 18), "raḥamah" ( birds , Deut. xiv. 17), which is certainly the carrion-kite (Vultur percnopterus). (6) "Da'ah" ( birds , Lev. xi. 14) or "dayyah ( birds ), which is possibly the kite, chiefly the black kite (Milvus migrans). (7) "Ayyah" ( birds , Job xxviii. 7) which denotes probably the falcon. (8) "Neẓ" ( birds , Lev. xi. 16), perhaps a name for a hawk, including probably some species of falcon (compare Job xxxix. 26). (9) "'Oreb" ( birds , Gen. viii. 7), the raven or birds of that order, as the hooded crow, roller, daw, magpie, etc. (10) "Yanshuf" ( birds , Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 16), probably a species of owl, perhaps the eagleowl. (11) "Tinshemet" ( birds , Lev. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 16), probably also a species of owl. (12) "Kus" ( birds , Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 16), which likewise belongs to the owl order; it is perhaps the wood-owl or the little owl, which lives among ruins. (13) "Shalak" ( birds , Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 17), probably the cormorant, which pounces upon itsprey from cliffs or rocks or from a height in air. (14) "Ḳat" ( birds , Lev. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 17), which, according to the translators, is the pelican; but this is doubtful (see Isa. xxxiv. 11; Zeph. ii. 14). Among the birds was also included the "aṭalef" ( birds ), the bat, of which several species are found in Palestine, where it abounds, as it does generally in the south.

Since some of these birds were eaten, the Law naturally separated them into clean and unclean (compare Lev. xi. 13 et seq.; Deut. xiv. 20 et seq.). For the sacrifice the dove ("yonah" or "tor") only was used (compare Lev. v. 7; xii. 8; xv. 14, 29). Whether, however, the Israelites, like the Chaldeans, practised Augury, we have no means of knowing.

Mode of Capture.

Birds were caught in two ways: either by (1) a spring-trap ("paḥ") or by (2) a sling with a wooden or stone projectile, by which the bird was brought down (compare Amos iii. 5; Hosea vii. 12, ix. 8). Seven different kinds of bird-snares are referred to in the Old Testament, the chief of which are the throw-stick, springe, clap-net, the trap, and the decoy-bird. All are used at the present day.

The people had a genuine fellow-feeling for birds as well as for the domestic quadrupeds (Deut. xxii. 6 et seq.); and the many references to bird-life testify to the interest taken in it. The eagle that "stirreth up her nest . . . fluttereth over her young," becomes the prototype of Yhwh's protecting love of Israel (Deut. xxxii. 11; Ex. xix. 4; compare Isa. xxxi. 5). In Prov. xxvii. 8 the homeless wanderer is compared to the "bird that wandereth from her nest" (compare Isa. xvi. 2). In Hosea xi. 11, people returning from Egypt and Assyria are compared to the doves returning to their dove-cotes. Jeremiah viii. 7 contrasts the people that "know not the judgment of the Lord" with the birds that "observe the time of their coming." Proverbs xxvi. 2 compares the unjust curse to the birds flying away. Israel's enemies are often compared to the birds pouncing upon their prey with lightning-like rapidity (Deut. xxviii. 49; Isa. xlvi. 11; Hosea viii. 1; compare Jer. xii. 9). The complete annihilation of man is often metaphorically expressed by the idea of giving his flesh up to the birds; compare Gen. xl. 19; Deut. xxviii. 26; I Sam. xvii. 44, 46; I Kings xiv. 11, xvi. 4, xxi. 24; Jer. vii. 33, xvi. 4, etc. These and similar references show how numerous and manifest the birds must have been; in fact, passages like Job xli. 5 and Bar. iii. 17 display their intimate connection with the life of the people.

—In Rabbinical Literature:

The general name for birds in rabbinical literature is birds . They are said to have been created from water mixed with sand, being thus intermediate between mammalia ( birds ), created from earth, and fishes, created from water (Ḥul. 27b). The eagle (Ḥag. 13b) is the king of birds, while the rooster is the most obstinate (Beẓah 25b).

The numerous species are divided into the clean and the unclean, both minutely described by the Talmud (compare Clean and Unclean); but it should be noticed that while there are only twenty-nine classes of unclean birds, the number of the clean is unlimited (Ḥul. 63a, b). It happens, however, that the unclean birds sometimes hatch the eggs of the clean, and vice versa. Among partridges the male sometimes sets on the nest (Ḥul. xii. 2, 138b). Some of the eggs are not fertile; such are those produced by the hen when she sits in the warm sun, these being, however, better for food (Beẓah 7a). The formation of the chick begins at the broad, flat end of the egg (Ḥul. 64b; compare Rashi on the passage). In addition to their production of eggs (referring only to those of the clean species, Ḥul. l.c.), birds are useful for other purposes. The meat, though less desirable than beef (Me'i. 20b), is esteemed as a delicacy among the rich, while the poor seldom eat it (Bek. 10a; Ket. 5a), the flesh of poultry being considered particularly good for old people (Yer. Peah viii. 21a).

The wings (Kelim xvi. 19), claws (Ḥul. 25b; compare Rashi on the passage), and eggs of birds are put to various uses, the last being sometimes covered with a glaze (Kelim l.c.). Blown egg-shells are used to hold oil for lamps (Shab. ii. 11, 29b); and even as early as Talmudic times the strength of an egg-shell placed on end was recognized, for sometimes an egg is placed under the foot of a bedstead to make the latter stand even (Beẓah 4a). The use of quills for writing was unknown in Talmudic times, and in the twelfth century the casuists questioned whether it was lawful to use them for the writing of Torah scrolls (Löw, "Ha-Mafteah," p. 349; Lewysohn, "Die Zoologie des Talmuds," p. 161).

Classes of Birds.

The Talmud names about one hundred classes and varieties of birds, but it is extremely difficult to identify them. For example, it mentions two varieties of the bird birds (probably a Persian term; Kohut, "Aruch Completum," s.v., suggests "darpash" = finch), one of which bears the royal by-name "Shapur" and was clean, while the other, also called after a Persian king, the "Firuz," is unclean (Ḥul. 62b). Mention is also made of a bird birds (= χρῶμα, color), found in the neighborhood of Babylonia, which becomes iridescent at sunrise (Ber. 6b; Lewysohn [ib. p. 183] refers to the pajaro del sol, "sun-bird"). A similar many-colored bird is the birds ("many-colored"), which shows not less than three hundred and sixty-five hues (Gen. R. vii. 4), "ẓabua'" being the Hebrew name for peacock, which in rabbinical literature is usually designated by its Greek name birds , Tάως, as shown from a parallel passage in the Midrash cited (Tan., Tazria', ed. Buber, iii. 33).

The Talmud describes many birds, giving details of their natures and uses. The falcon ( birds ) is used in the chase. The hunter, seated on his horse, has the falcon at his side, releasing it at sight of another bird (Shab. 94a; Sanh. 95a). The keen sight of the vulture ( birds ) is indicated in the following passage: "It can be in Babylon and see a corpse in Palestine" (Ḥul. 63b). The strong, piercing cry of the crane ( birds ) originated the saying: "Cry like a crane" (Ḳid. 49a). The heron ( birds , "quarreler") in the Bible is a cruel bird that quarrels ( birds ) constantly with its companions, as its name suggests. It belongs to the family of vultures, its real namebeing birds ("angry dayah"). Another member of this family is the stork, or white dayah, called also "the pious one" ("ḥasidah"), because it shares its food with its mates (Ḥul. 63a, b). The stork's gall is an antidote for the sting of the scorpion (Ket. 50a). In addition to the dayah family, of which there are said to be no less than one hundred varieties (Ḥul. l.c.), the Talmud mentions the numerous varieties of the raven family (see Raven in Rabbinical Literature). Hens, geese, and doves are considered domestic poultry, and the wild varieties are also named. Some birds, particularly song-birds, and those of beautiful plumage, are kept as pets by the wealthy, and there is an allegory about a free bird which envies a friend in a cage its rich food, forgetting that the friend has paid for the food with its freedom (Pesiḳ., ed. Buber, xxv. 164a, b). The social life of birds originated the proverb: "Every bird dwelleth according to his kind, and so doth man according to his like" (B. B. 92b; the passage quotes verses from Ecclus. [Sirach] xiii. 16, xxvii. 9, as if they were from the Scripture).

In Jewish Folk-Lore.

Among Jews, as among most nations (Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," on Birds), birds were thought to possess supernatural knowledge, because they soared in the air. Thus in rabbinical literature, both Babylonian and Palestinian, there are numerous references to the folk-lore on birds (see Augury; Zohar, "Balak," iii. 148b et seq.). In Noah's Ark only the clean ones dwelt in the part with Noah and his family; the others dwelt elsewhere (Sanh. 108b). King Solomon knew the bird language (see Solomon in Rabbincal Literature and Legend).

Parts of the body of some birds were used as remedies (Joel Heilprin, "Mifa'lut Elohim"; David Tevel Ashkenazi, "Bet David"). Compare Bar Yokni, Cock, Dove, Eagle, Goose, Pigeon, Raven.

Bibliography:

Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds, pp. 15-16, 159-218.

Birds as Souls:

In Psalm xi. 1 the soul is compared to a bird: "Flee as a bird to your mountain." As living beings which move and fly through the air, birds have suggested themselves at all times and in all lands to primitive man as images of the soul, the name for which in most languages is taken from breathing ("nefesh," "neshamah,"="anima," or "psyche"); the soul was represented in the form of a butterfly, as illustrated by the tombs of the early Christians (Aringhi, "Roma Subterranea Novissima," ii. 324). The soul of the king of Egypt was pictured on the monuments as a bird; and the genius ("frawashi") of the kings of Assyria and Persia retained the wings of the bird (Rawlinson, "Herodotus," ii. 105, note 1; idem, "Ancient Monarchies," ii. 28, iii. 353; compare also Simrock, "Handbuch der Deutschen Mythologie," p. 461).

The Arabs also regarded the soul as a bird, and believed that after death it hovered at times around the body, screeching like an owl (Mas'udi, "Les Prairies d'Or," iii. 310, Paris, 1864; Sprenger, "Das Leben Mohammeds," i. 358, note; Kremer, "Gesch. der Herrschenden Ideen des Islams," 1868, pp. 166 et seq.). This view was shared by the Jews. They believed that all souls are gathered in a great cage or treasure-house in heaven, a columbarium, called "Guf"; and so Rabbi Assi teaches that the Messiah, the son of David, can not come until all the souls have been taken out of the Guf, and have gone through human bodies (Yeb. 62a, 63b; Niddah 13b; and elsewhere). In the Greek Baruch Apocalypse (ch. x.), Baruch sees in the fourth heaven a lake full of birds, and is told that these are the souls of the righteous, who continually sing the praise of God. These stories are repeated by Christian saints who affirm having seen the souls of the righteous in the shape of doves in paradise (M. R. James, in "Texts and Studies," v., lxix.; idem, in "Anecdota Græco-Byzantina," p. 181, quoted in Kautzsch, "Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments," p. 455).

The souls of the righteous which dwell in the Acherusian lake were consulted as God's counselors at the creation of man, according to Gen. R. 8, having their parallel in the Zendavesta ("Bundahish," ii. 10; Mihir Yast xxv. in "Sacred Books of the East," xxiii. 145).

In the Zohar the sparrow and the swallow, spoken of in Ps. lxxxiv. 3, are compared to the souls of the righteous which dwell in paradise, exactly as are those mentioned in the Baruch Apocalypse. Three times a year, in Nisan and Tishri, they rise upon the walls of paradise and sing the praise of the Master of the universe; whereupon they are ushered into the palace where the Messiah is hidden, called the great "Souls' Nest." They are adorned with crowns in his honor when he appears to them, and from beneath the altar of heaven, where dwell the souls of the righteous, they prepare the erection of the Temple of the future (Zohar ii. 7b, iii. 196b). Grätz ("Gesch. der Juden," vii. 9) failed to see that this rests on an old tradition.

It is customary among German Jews, when a death occurs, to open a window in order that the soul may fly away like a bird (compare Liebrecht, "Zur Volkskunde," 1879 p. 371). On birds around God's throne see Merkabah.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by James Orr (ed.) (1915) ↑

bûrds (עיט, ‛ayiṭ; Greek variously τὰ πετεινά, tá peteiná (Mat 13:4) τὰ ὄρνεα τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, tá órnea toú ouranoú (Rev 19:17) ὄρνις, órnis (Mat 23:37; Luk 13:34) Latin, avis; Old English “brid”):

I. Meaning of the Word

All authorities agree that the exact origin of the word bird, as we apply it to feathered creatures, is unknown.

1. In Early Hebrew

The Hebrew ‛ayiṭ means to “tear and scratch the face,” and in its original form undoubtedly applied to birds of prey. It is probable that no spot of equal size on the face of the globe ever collected such numbers of vultures, eagles and hawks as ancient Palestine. The land was so luxuriant that flocks and herds fed from the face of Nature. In cities, villages, and among tent-dwellers incessant slaughter went on for food, while the heavens must almost have been obscured by the ascending smoke from the burning of sacrificed animals and birds, required by law of every man and woman. From all these slain creatures the offal was thrown to the birds. There were no guns; the arrows of bowmen or “throw sticks” were the only protection against them, and these arms made no noise to frighten feathered creatures, and did small damage. So it easily can be seen that the birds would increase in large numbers and become so bold that men were often in actual conflict with them, and no doubt their faces and hands were torn and scratched.

2. In Later Usage

Later, as birds of song and those useful for food came into their lives, the word was stretched to cover all feathered creatures. In the King James Version ‛ayiṭ is translated “fowl,” and occurs several times: “And when the fowls came down upon the carcasses, Abram drove them away” (Gen 15:11). “They shall be left together unto the fowls of the mountains, and to the beasts of the earth; and the fowls shall summer upon them, and all the beasts of the earth shall winter upon them” (Isa 18:6). “There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture’s eye hath not seen” (Job 28:7). The American Standard Revised Version changes these and all other references to feathered creatures to “birds,” making a long list. The Hebrew ‛ayiṭ in its final acceptance was used in Palestine as “bird” is with us.

3. In Old English

Our earliest known form of the word is the Old English “brid,” but they applied the term to the young of any creature. Later its meaning was narrowed to young produced from eggs, and the form changed to “bird.”

II. Natural History of Birds

The first known traces of birds appear in the formation of the Triassic period, and are found in the shape of footprints on the red sandstone of the Connecticut valley.

1. Earliest Traces and Specimens

This must have been an ancient sea bed over which stalked large birds, leaving deeply imprinted impressions of their feet. These impressions baked in the sun, and were drifted full of fine wind-driven sand before the return of the tide. Thus were preserved to us the traces of 33 species of birds all of which are proven by their footprints to have been much larger than our birds of today. The largest impressions ever found measured 15 inches in length by 10 in width, and were set from 4 to 6 ft. apart. This evidence would form the basis for an estimate of a bird at least four times as large as an ostrich. That a bird of this size ever existed was not given credence until the finding of the remains of the dinornis in New Zealand. The largest specimen of this bird stood 10 1/2 ft. in height. The first complete skeleton of a bird was found in the limestone of the Jurassic period in Solenhofen, Bavaria. This bird had 13 teeth above and 3 below, each set in a separate socket, wings ending in three-fingered claws much longer than the claws of the feet, and a tail of 20 vertebrae, as long as the body, having a row of long feathers down each side of it, the specimen close to the size of a crow. The first preserved likeness of a bird was found frescoed on the inside of a tomb of Maydoon, and is supposed to antedate the time of Moses 3,000 years. It is now carefully preserved in the museum of Cairo. The painting represents six geese, four of which can be recognized readily as the ancestors of two species known today. Scientists now admit that Moses was right in assigning the origin of birds to the water, as their structure is closer reptilian than mammalian, and they reproduce by eggs. To us it seems a long stretch between the reptile with a frame most nearly bird-like and a feathered creature, but there is a possibility that forms making closer connection yet will be found.

2. Structural Formation

The trunk of a bird is compact and in almost all instances boat-shaped. Without doubt prehistoric man conceived his idea of navigation and fashioned his vessel from the body of a water bird, and then noticed that a soaring bird steered its course with its tail and so added the rudder. The structural formation of a bird is so arranged as to give powerful flight and perfect respiration. In the case of a few birds that do not fly, the wings are beaten to assist in attaining speed in running, as the ostrich, or to help in swimming under the water, as the auk. The skull of a young bird is made up of parts, as is that of man or animal; but with age these parts join so evenly that they appear in a seamless formation. The jaws extend beyond the face, forming a bill that varies in length and shape with species, and it is used in securing food, in defense, feather dressing, nest building - in fact it is a combination of the mouth and hand of man. The spine is practically immovable, because of the ribs attached to the upper half and the bony structure supporting the pelvic joints of the lower. In sharp contrast with this the neck is formed of from 10 to 23 vertebrae, and is so flexible that a bird can turn its head completely around, a thing impossible to man or beast. The breast bone is large, strong, and provided with a ridge in the middle, largest in birds of strong flight, smallest in swimmers, and lacking only in birds that do not fly, as the ostrich. The wings correspond to the arms of man, and are now used in flight and swimming only. Such skeletons as the Archeopteryx prove that the bones now combined in the tip of the wing were once claws. This shows that as birds spread over land and developed wing power in searching longer distances for food or when driven by varying conditions of climate, the wings were used more in flight, and the claws gradually joined in a tip and were given covering that grew feathers, while the bill became the instrument for taking food and for defense. At the same time the long tail proving an encumbrance, it gradually wore away and contracted to the present form. Studied in detail of bony structure, muscle, and complicated arrangement of feathers of differing sizes, the wing of a bird proves one of Nature’s marvels. The legs are used in walking or swimming, the thigh joint being so enveloped in the body that the true leg is often mistaken for it. This makes the knee of a man correspond to the heel of a bird, and in young birds of prey especially, the shank or tarsus is used in walking, until the bones harden and the birds are enabled to bear their weight on the feet and straighten the shank. The toes vary with species. Pliny classified birds by them: “The first and principal difference and distinction in birds is taken from their feet; for they have either hooked talons, as Hawkes, or long round claws as Hens, or else they be broad, flat and whole-footed as Geese.” Flight is only possible to a bird when both wings are so nearly full-feathered that it balances perfectly. In sleep almost every bird places its head under its wing and stands on one foot. The arrangement by which this is accomplished, without tiring the bird in the least, is little short of miraculous and can be the result only of slow ages of evolution. In the most finished degree this provision for the comfort of the bird is found among cranes and other long-legged water birds. The bone of one part of the leg fits into the bone of the part above, so that it is practically locked into place with no exertion on the part of the bird. At the same time the muscles that work the claws, cross the joints of the leg so that they are stretched by the weight of the bird, and with no effort, it stands on earth or perches on a branch. This explains the question so frequently asked as to why the feet of a perching bird do not become so cramped and tired that it falls.

3. Birds’ Food, Blood, Etc.

Birds feed according to their nature, some on prey taken alive, some on the carrion of dead bodies, some on fish and vegetable products of the water, some on fruit seed, insects and worms of the land. Almost every bird indulges in a combination of differing foods. Their blood is from 12 degrees to 16 degrees warmer than that of the rest of the animal kingdom, and they exhibit a corresponding exhilaration of spirits. Some indulge in hours of sailing and soaring, some in bubbling notes of song, while others dart near earth in playful dashes of flight. Birds are supposed to be rather deficient in the senses of taste and touch, and to have unusually keen vision. They reproduce by eggs that they deposit in a previously selected and prepared spot, and brood for a length of time varying with the species. The young of birds of prey, song birds, and some water birds, remain in the nests for differing lengths of time and are fed by the old birds; while others of the water birds and most of the game birds leave the nest as soon as the down is dry, and find food as they are taught by their elders, being sheltered at night so long as needful.

III. Birds of the Bible

The birds of the Bible were the same species and form as exist in Palestine today. Because of their wonderful coloring, powerful flight, joyous song, and their similarity to humanity in home-making and the business of raising their young, birds have been given much attention, and have held conspicuous place since the dawn of history. When the brain of man was young and more credulous than today he saw omens, signs and miracles in the characteristic acts of birds, and attributed to them various marvelous powers: some were considered of good omen and a blessing, and some were bad and a curse.

1. Earliest Mention

The historians of the Bible frequently used birds in comparison, simile, and metaphor. They are first mentioned in Gen 7:14, Gen 7:15, “They, and every beast after its kind, and all the cattle after their kind, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth after its kind, and every bird after its kind, every bird of every sort.” This is the enumeration of the feathered creatures taken into the ark to be preserved for the perpetuation of species after the flood abated. They are next found in the description of the sacrifice of Abram, where it was specified that he was to use, with the animals slaughtered, a turtle dove and a young pigeon, the birds not to be divided. It is also recorded that the birds of prey were attracted by the carcasses as described in Gen 15:9-11, “And he said unto him, Take me a heifer three years old, and a she-goat three years old, and a ram three years old, and a turtle-dove, and a young pigeon. And he took him all these, and divided them in the midst, and laid each half over against the other: but the birds divided he not. And the birds of prey came down upon the carcasses, and Abram drove them away.” Palestine abounded in several varieties of “doves” (which see) and their devotion to each other, and tender, gentle characteristics had marked them as a loved possession of the land; while the clay cotes of pigeons were reckoned in establishing an estimate of a man’s wealth.

2. Used in Sacrifice

In an abandon of gratitude to God these people offered of their best-loved and most prized possessions as sacrifice; and so it is not surprising to find the history of burnt offerings frequently mentioning these birds which were loved and prized above all others. Their use is first commanded in Lev 1:14-17, “And if his oblation to Yahweh be a burnt-offering of birds, then he shall offer his oblation of turtle-doves, or of young pigeons. And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off its head , and burn it on the altar; and the blood thereof shall be drained out on the side of the altar; and he shall take away its crop with the filth thereof, and cast it beside the altar on the east part, in the place of the ashes.” Again in Lev 5:7-10, we read: “And if his means suffice not for a lamb, then he shall bring his trespass-offering for that wherein he hath sinned, two turtle-doves, or two young pigeons, unto Yahweh; one for a sin-offering, and the other for a burnt-offering.” Throughout the Bible these birds figure in the history of sacrifice (Lev 12:8; Lev 14:4-8; Num 6:10, etc.).

3. Other References

The custom of weaving cages of willow wands, in which to confine birds for pets, seems to be referred to when Job asks (Job 41:5): “Wilt thou play with him as with a bird? Or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens?”

See Job 12:7: “But ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee; And the birds of the heavens, and they shall tell thee.”

David was thinking of the swift homeward flight of an eagle when he wrote: “In Yahweh do I take refuge: How say ye to my soul, Flee as a bird to your mountain?” (Psa 11:1).

His early days guarding the flocks of his father no doubt suggested to him the statement found in Psa 50:11: “I know all the birds of the mountains; And the wild beasts of the field are mine” (the Revised Version margin, “in my mind”).

In describing Lebanon, the Psalmist wrote of its waters: “By them the birds of the heavens have their habitation; They sing among the branches” (Psa 104:12).

He mentioned its trees: “Where the birds make their nests: As for the stork, the fir-trees are her house” (Psa 104:17).