Appendix

APPENDIX
The Shema and the Shemoneh Esreh
The Shema and the Shemoneh Esreh occupy, on the one hand from their antiquity, on the other from the high estimation in which they were held, so prominent a position in the Jewish liturgy, that further particulars concerning them must here be given.
1. The Shema[1692] consists of the three paragraphs, Deuteronomy 6:4-9; Deuteronomy 11:13-21, and Numbers 15:37-41; therefore of those passages of the Pentateuch, in which is chiefly inculcated that Jehovah alone is the God of Israel, and in which the use of certain mementos is prescribed for the constant remembrance of Him. The three paragraphs are expressly named in the Mishna by the words with which they begin: (1) שְׁמַע, (2) וְהָיָה אִם שָׁמֹעַ, and (3) וַיּאֹמֶר.[1693] Around this nucleus are grouped at the beginning and end thanksgivings (Berachahs); and the Mishna prescribes that two benedictions should be said before, and one after, the morning Shema, and two before, and two after, the evening Shema.[1694] The initial words of the concluding benediction are cited in the Mishna just as they are used to this day, viz. אֱמֶת וְיַצִּיב.[1695] If then the wording of the benedictions was subsequently considerably increased, they still belong fundamentally to the period of the Mishna.[1696] This prayer, or more correctly this confession of faith, was to be said twice a day, viz. morning and evening, by every adult male Israelite;[1697] women, slaves and children were not required to repeat it.[1698] It was not necessary that it should be recited in Hebrew, any other language being admissible for the purpose.[1699] How ancient this custom of repeating the Shema was, appears from the fact that the Mishna already gives such detailed directions concerning it.[1700] It mentions moreover that it was already repeated by the priests in the temple, which assumes the use of it at least before A.D. 70.[1701] Nay, for Josephus the origin of this custom is lost in so hoar an antiquity, that he regards it as an enactment of Moses himself.[1702]
[1692] See Vitringa, De synagoga, pp. 1052-1061. Zunz, Die gottesdienstl. Vorträge, pp. 367, 369-371. Hamburger, Real-Enc. ii. 1087-1092.
[1693] Berachoth ii. 2; Tamid v. 1.
[1694] Berachoth i. 4.
[1695] Berachoth ii. 2; Tamid v. 1.
[1696] Zunz (as above) has attempted to separate the ancient portions from the modern additions.
[1697] Berachoth i. 1-4.
[1698] Berachoth iii. 3.
[1699] Sota vii. 1.
[1700]a Comp. in general also, Pesachim iv. 8; Taanith iv. 3; Sota v. 4; Aboth ii. 13.
[1701] Tamid iv. fin., v. 1.
[1702] Joseph. Antt. iv. 8. 13: Δὶς δʼ ἑκάστης ἡμέρας, ἀρχομένης τε αὐτῆς καὶ ὁκότε πρὸς ὕπνον ὥρα τρέπεσθαι, μαρτυρεῖν τῷ θεῷ τὰς δωρεὰς ἃς ἀπαλλαγεῖσιν αὐτοῖς ἐκ τῆς Αἰγυπτίων γῆς παρέσχε, δικαίας οὔσης φύσει τῆς εὐχαριστίας καὶ γενομένης ἐπʼ ἀμοιβῇ μὲν τῶν ἤδη γεγονότων ἐπὶ δὲ προτροπῇ τῶν ἐσομένων. That Josephus means by this the custom of reciting the Shema cannot be doubtful. He rightly views the Shema as a thankful confession of Jehovah, as the God who redeemed Israel from Egypt. Comp. especially, Numbers 15:41.
2. The Shemoneh Esreh.[1703] Somewhat more recent than the Shema, but still very ancient as to its groundwork, is the Shemoneh Esreh, i.e. the chief prayer, which every Israelite, even women, slaves and children, had to repeat three times a day, viz. morning, afternoon (at the time of the Minchah offering) and evening.[1704] It is so much the chief prayer of the Israelite, that it is also called merely הַתְּפִלָּה, “the prayer.” In its final, authentic and fixed form it does not consist, as its name שְׁמוֹנֶה עֶשְׂרֵה denotes, of eighteen, but of nineteen Berachahs. Its words, as given in every Jewish prayer-book, are as follow:—
[1703] See Vitringa, De synagoga, pp. 1031-1051. Zunz, Die gottesdienstl. Vorträge, pp. 367-369. Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. der jüdischen Poesie (1836), pp. 191-193. Herzfeld, Gesch. des Volkes Jisrael, iii. 200-204. Bickell, Messe und Pashah (1872), pp. 65 sq., 71-73. Hamburger, Real-Enc. ii. 1092-1099.
[1704] Berachoth iii. 3 (women, children, slaves), iv. 1 (three times a day).
“1. Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God and the God of our fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob, the great God, the mighty and tremendous, the Most High God, who bestowest gracious favours and createst all things, and rememberest the piety of the patriarchs, and wilt bring a redeemer to their posterity, for the sake of Thy name in love. O King, who bringest help and healing and art a shield. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the shield of Abraham. 2. Thou art mighty for ever, O Lord; Thou restorest life to the dead, Thou art mighty to save; who sustainest the living with beneficence, quicken est the dead with great mercy, supporting the fallen and healing the sick, and setting at liberty those who are bound, and upholding Thy faithfulness unto those who sleep in the dust. Who is like unto Thee, Lord, the Almighty One; or who can be compared unto Thee, O King, who killest and makest alive again, and causest help to spring forth? And faithful art Thou to quicken the dead: Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who restorest the dead. 3. Thou art holy and Thy name is holy, and the saints daily praise Thee. Selah. Blessed art Thou, O Lord; the God most holy. 4. Thou graciously impartest to man knowledge, and teachest to mortals reason. Let us be favoured from Thee with knowledge, understanding and wisdom. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who graciously impartest knowledge. 5. Cause us to turn, O our Father, to Thy law, and draw us near, O our King, to Thy service, and restore us in perfect repentance to Thy presence. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who delightest in repentance. 6. Forgive us, our Father, for we have sinned; pardon us, our King, for we have transgressed; ready to pardon and forgive Thou art. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, most gracious, who dost abundantly pardon. 7. Look, we beseech Thee, upon our afflictions, and plead our cause and redeem us speedily for the sake of Thy name, for a mighty Redeemer Thou art. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the Redeemer of Israel. 8. Heal us, O Lord, and we shall be healed; save us, and we shall be saved; for our praise art Thou; and bring forth a perfect remedy unto all our infirmities; for a God and King, a faithful healer, and most merciful art Thou. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who healest the diseases of Thy people Israel. 9. Bless unto us, O Lord our God, this year and grant us an abundant harvest, and bring a blessing on our land, and satisfy us with Thy goodness; and bless our year as the good years. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who blessest the years. 10. Sound with the great trumpet to announce our freedom; and set up a standard to collect our captives, and gather us together from the four corners of the earth. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who gatherest the outcasts of Thy people Israel. 11. O restore our judges as formerly, and our counsellors as at the beginning; and remove from us sorrow and sighing; and reign over us, Thou O Lord alone, in grace and mercy; and justify us. Blessed art Thou, O Lord the King, for Thou lovest Righteousness and justice. 12. To slanderers let there be no hope, and let all workers of wickedness perish as in a moment; and let all of them speedily be cut off; and humble them speedily in our days. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who destroyest enemies and humblest tyrants. 13. Upon the just and upon the pious and upon the elders of Thy people the house of Israel, and upon the remnant of their scribes, and upon righteous strangers, and upon us, bestow, we beseech Thee, Thy mercy, O Lord our God, and grant a good reward unto all who confide in Thy name faithfully; and appoint our portion with them for ever, and may we never be put to shame, for our trust is in Thee. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the support and confidence of the righteous. 14. And to Jerusalem Thy city return with compassion, and dwell therein as Thou hast promised; and rebuild her speedily in our days, a structure everlasting; and the throne of David speedily establish therein. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the builder of Jerusalem. 15. The offspring of David Thy servant speedily cause to flourish, and let his horn be exalted in Thy salvation; for Thy salvation do we hope daily. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who causest the horn of salvation to flourish. 16. Hear our voice, O Lord our God, pity and have mercy upon us, and accept with compassion and favour these our prayers, for Thou art a God who heareth prayers and supplications; and from Thy presence, O our King, send us not empty away, for Thou hearest the prayers of Thy people Israel in mercy. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who hearest prayer. 17. Be pleased, O Lord our God, with Thy people Israel, and with their prayers; and restore the sacrificial service to the Holy of Holies of Thy house; and the offerings of Israel, and their prayers in love do Thou accept with favour; and may the worship of Israel Thy people be ever pleasing. O that our eyes may behold Thy return to Zion with mercy. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, who restorest Thy glory (שְׁכִינָה) unto Zion. 18. We praise Thee, for Thou art the Lord our God and the God of our fathers for ever and ever; the Rock of our life, the Shield of our salvation, Thou art for ever and ever. We will render thanks unto Thee, and declare Thy praise, for our lives which are delivered into Thy hand, and for our souls which are deposited with Thee, and for Thy miracles which daily are with us; and for Thy wonders and Thy goodness, which are at all times, evening and morning and at noon. Thou art good for Thy mercies fail not, and compassionate for Thy loving-kindness never ceaseth; our hopes are for ever in Thee. And for all this praised and extolled be Thy name, our King, for ever and ever. And all that live shall give thanks unto Thee for ever, Selah, and shall praise Thy name in truth; the God of our salvation and our aid for ever. Selah. Blessed art Thou, O Lord, for all-bountiful is Thy name, and unto Thee it becometh us to give thanks. 19. Great salvation bring over Israel Thy people for ever, for Thou art King, Lord of all salvation. Praised be Thou, Lord, for Thou blessest Thy people Israel with salvation.”
From the contents of this prayer it is evident, that it first attained its finally authentic form after the destruction of Jerusalem, that is, after A.D. 70. For it presupposes in its 14th and 17th Berachah the destruction of the city and the cessation of the sacrificial service. On the other hand, it is already cited in the Mishna under the name שְׁמוֹנֶה עֶשְׂרֵה,[1705] and it is mentioned, that R. Gamaliel II., R. Joshua, R. Akiba and R. Elieser—all authorities of the beginning of the second century—debated whether all the eighteen thanksgivings or only a selection from them must be said daily,[1706] also in what manner the additions concerning the rainy season and the Sabbath should be inserted, and in what form to pray on New Year’s day.[1707] Hence it must have virtually attained its present form about A.D. 70-100, and its groundwork may safely be regarded as considerably more ancient. This inference is confirmed by the definite information of the Talmud, that Simon the cotton dealer at Jabne in the time of Gamaliel II. arranged the eighteen thanksgivings according to their order, and that Samuel the Little, at R. Gamaliel’s invitation, inserted the prayer against apostates (מִינִים), which makes it consist, not of eighteen, but of nineteen sections.[1708]
[1705] Berachoth iv. 3; Taanith ii. 2.
[1706] Berachoth iv. 3.
[1707] Berachoth v. 2; Rosh hashana iv. 5; Taanith i. 1-2. At the close of the Sabbath the so-called הַבְדָּלָה, i.e. the “separation,” by which the Sabbath was separated from the week-day, was inserted. See Berachoth v. 2 (in Surenhusius’ Mishna, i. 18). Levy, Neuhebr. Wörterb. s.v. הבדלה.
[1708] Berachoth 28b: שמעון הפקולי הסדיר שמונה עשרה ברכות לפני רבן כלום יש אדם, גמליאל על הסדר ביבנה· אמר להם רבן גמליאל לחכמים שיודע לתקן ברכת המינים ? עמד שמואל הקטן ותקנה·. The question is immediately before asked, why there are nineteen instead of eighteen Berachoth. The ברכת המינים (for this is undoubtedly the correct reading instead of ברכת הצדוקים, which the editions have, see Levy, Neuhebr. Wörterb. s.v. מין) forms the 12th Berachah. But instead of the original מינים, we have in the present text of the prayer מַלְשִׁינִים (slanderers), the former being corrected by the insertion of only two letters. Comp. Derenbourg, Histoire de la Palestine, p. 345 sq. The מִינִים are “apostates” in general, not merely Jewish Christians, as is often supposed. The Fathers were not however quite in the wrong when they referred the Birkath hamminim chiefly to Jewish Christians. Comp. Epiphan. haer. xxix. 9: Οὐ μόνον γὰρ οί τῶν Ἰουδαίων παῖδες πρὸς τούτους κέκτηνται μῖσος, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀνιστάμενοι ἕωθεν καὶ μέσης ἡμέρας καὶ περὶ τὴν ἐοπέραν, τρὶς τῆς ἡμέρας, ὅτε εὐχας ἐπιτελοῦσιν ἑαυτοῖς ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς, ἐπαρῶνται αὐτοῖς, καὶ ἀναθεματίζουσι τρὶς τῆς ἡμέρας φάσκοντες ὅτι Ἐπικαταράσαι ὁ θεὸς τοὺς Ναζωραίους. Hieronymus ad Jesaj. v. 18-19, ed. Vallarsi, iv. 81: (Judaei) usque hodie perseverant in blasphemiis et ter per singulos dies in omnibus synagogis sub nomine Nazarenorum anathematizant vocabulum Christianum. Idem, ad Jesaj. xlix. 7, ed. Vallarsi, iv. 565: (Judaei Christo) ter per singulos dies sub nomine Nazarenorum maledicunt in synagogis suis. Idem, ad Jesaj. lii. 4 ff., ed. Vallarsi, iv. 604: (Judaei) diebus ac noctibus blasphemant Salvatorem et sub nomine, ut saepe dixi, Nazarenorum ter in die in Christianos congerunt maledicta. Less decidedly Justinus, Dialog. c. Tryph. c. 16: Καταρώμενοι ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς ὑμῶν τοὺς πιστεύοντας ἐπὶ τὸν Χριστόν. Justin frequently expresses himself in the same manner (see Otto on the passage). Comp. also especially c. 137: Συμφάμενοι οὖν μὴ λοιδορῆτε ἐπὶ τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ θεοῦ, μηδὲ Φαρισαίοις πειθόμενοι διδασκάλοις τὸν βασιλέα τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ ἐπισκώψητέ ποτε, ὁποῖα διδάσκουσιν οἱ ἀρχισυνάγωγοι ὑμῶν, μετὰ τὴν προσευχήν. It is striking, that according to this, the cursing formula was pronounced after the prayer. Perhaps this rests upon a mistake of Justin’s; it is however also possible that the Birkath hamminim originally had this position. Comp. Buxtorf, Lex. Chald. col. 1201 sq. Vitringa, De synagoga, pp. 1047-1051. Herzfeld, iii. 203 sq. Grätz, Gesch. der Juden, iv. 434 sq. Derenbourg, p. 345 sq. Hamburger, ii. 1095 sq.