06 - Chapter 6

LECTURE VI THE THEORY OF PREACHING AS TAUGHT DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

JUDGING by the volume and character of the literature devoted to it, the modern development of homiletical theory is by far the most important of all. In modern times Homiletics has come to be recognized as one of the greater departments of accepted theological discipline. It is no longer an incidental and subordinate part of Practical Theology. This result is not an accident, but the inevitable outcome of the movements and forces which we have been discussing in the previous lectures, especially those of the Reformation period. The highest point of this progress in homiletical teaching was reached in the nineteenth century (especially its latter part), but before that there was a gradual and notable development during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries which we are to sketch in this lecture. The Seventeenth Century The conditions of thought and of preaching during this century varied much with the different countries. There was not much worth noting in Spain. In Italy the elder Segneri introduced a new mode of preaching, after the French models.

Germany was desolated by the Thirty Years War, and yet Pietism arose with its new impulse upon Christian life and preaching. Holland showed activity in theological thought, but not remarkable results in preaching. In England it was the turbulent era of the Stuarts and the Common wealth, and yet of the great classic preachers among Churchmen, Puritans and Dissenters. In France the Edict of Nantes gave impulse to Protestant preaching, and this stimulated the Catholic pulpit which reached its classic glory in the age of Louis XIV. Among all these peoples there was development of theory as well as practice in the art of preaching, as we shall now see. In neither Spain nor Italy was there any work of especial importance, but several, either in Latin or the vernaculars, of Spanish or Italian author ship are mentioned by the authorities * as falling within the seventeenth century. One of these was by Joseph of Segovia (date unknown), On Evangelical Preaching, and one by F. B. Ferrario of Milan (1620), On the Rite of Sacred Discourse.

Mention is also made of an Apparatus Conciona-

1 The authorities mainly consulted for this lecture are: Daniel P. Kidder, Treatise on Homiletics, Appendix B, p. 430ff.; Herzog’s Real-encyclopadie, article on Homiletics by Christlieb; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, article on Homiletics; J. J. Van Oosterzee, Practical Theology, p. 114ff.; Lentz, Geschichte der Homiletik; Hering, Geschichte der Predigt. These will be referred to simply by name when necessary. Others will be named when used. torum by Labata Francesco, a notable Spanish preacher, who died in 1621. Besides these, several works with Italian titles are mentioned by Kidder and others as having appeared during the seven teenth century.

It thus appears that the Catholics of Spain and Italy during this period did not wholly neglect homiletical writing, but as their treatises were few and have never become distinguished we may safely infer that they were of no great value or originality. In France the case is quite different; for while the number of treatises is not great there are several of exceptional value. Etienne Gaussen, a no table Keformed theologian and professor at Sau-mur (died 1675), published among other valuable theological works a treatise in Latin, De Ratione Concionandi, which has been highly praised for good sense and sound principles. The famous and beloved Protestant preacher, Jean Claude, produced an Essay on the Composition of a Sermon, which was first published after his death in 1688, and has been much used and translated. Claude (1619-1687) was one of the greatest and best of the early French Protestants. His father before him was a Protestant. The young man was care fully educated, and after his first pastorate he was called, in 1654, to Nismes, where he served with fidelity for a number of years. In 1666 he served at Paris and was the leading man among the Protestants. It was during this time that he had his famous controversy with Bossuet, the great Catholic orator. At the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 Claude was banished. He lived in exile in Holland two years more. He was a great man and a noble character. His Essay on the Composition of a Sermon, in spite of some faults, had a great vogue in its time and for many years afterward. It was translated into English by Robert Robinson, the famous Cambridge preacher, and has been widely influential in both England and America. While he was pastor at Nismes he instructed a class of candidates for the ministry, and it is probable that at this time his ideas on preaching were wrought out. These were not reduced to writing until near the end of his life. The work remained in manuscript and was published after the author’s death. Several English editions appeared. The one here quoted is an abridgement from Robinson’s translation in a little volume by Edward Williams, called The Christian Preacher. The substance of the work is as follows: There are three principal parts of discourse exordium, discussion and application. To these should be added connection and division, making five in all.

Some preliminary words are spoken on the choice of a text: “ (1) It must have a complete sense; (2) the sermon should stop with this; both too much and too little are to be avoided; (3) it should be suitable to the occasion. “ On this last point the preacher should consider times and places, and for the latter should not choose odd texts for display, nor too profound ones, nor those which imply censure. Then follow some general rules as to explanation of Scripture. Next he says: “One of the most important precepts for the discussion of a text and the composition of a sermon is above all things to avoid excesses/ He goes on to specify that there must not be too much genius, that is, of intellectual display. The sermon must not be overcharged with doctrine, nor strained on particular points. Figures must not be overstrained, nor should reasoning be carried too far. Neither should there be too much of the minutiae of gram mar, criticism, language, etc., for this makes sermons pedantic and tiresome. As to divisions Claude teaches that there should not be too many. They should never exceed four or five; two or three are best. They may come either from the text or from the subject suggested by the text. “As to the division of the text itself sometimes the order of the words is so clear and natural that no division is necessary; you need only follow simply the order of the words. “ Suggestions follow as to the management of division and subdivisions. Then comes a long discussion of particular rules growing out of these general principles. These are grouped under the general heads of Explication and Observation. Explication is the unfolding of the meaning of the text, both its terms and its thought. As to observation, the meaning of the text is often clear, and observation then is the only way of treatment, especially in case of historical texts. Some texts require both explication and observation in different degrees.

Observations for the most part ought to be theoretical, that is, doctrinal. But they should not be scholastic on the one hand nor too commonplace on the other. These principles are illustrated at length by many examples showing how to carry out the principles in practice. Following this there is some repetition of thoughts already given, with added notice of making application and of stating propositions.

Claude briefly treats of exordium and conclusion. The principal use of an exordium is to prepare the hearer’s mind for the particular matters you have to treat of, and insensibly to conduct him to them.” Sensible suggestions are offered as to the brevity, clearness and attractiveness of introductions. As to the conclusion he says: “The conclusion should be lively and animating, full of great and beautiful figures, aiming to move Christian affections.” He discusses these suggestions and in conclusion makes some general remarks on the need of variety, soberness and other qualities of good preaching. The work of Claude is very judicially appraised by Vinet, 1 who says that it has both a practical and a historic interest because it not only offers many valuable hints, but shows the ideas of preaching held at the time. He justly criticized Claude’s * Histoire de la Predication parmi les R6form6s, p. 344ff. ideas of invention both in the long and elaborate principles which he lays down, and the numerous examples given of how to compose sermons. Vinet wisely observes that this method hinders rather than helps invention, especially in young preachers, who should learn to think for themselves and work out their own methods and outlines. He sums up by saying: “Claude’s book has without doubt had a great influence and one may in part attribute to it those preachings of commonplace form and facile method which are all alike in their tastelessness and nullity; yet with these reserves made we can recommend the reading of it. One will find in it many important observations, many just and sagacious ideas which one would not find in a rhetorician, and which are the fruit of experience. “

Among French Catholics in the earlier part of the century there were found homiletical teachings in the works of St. Vincent de Paul (died 1660) and St. Francis de Sales (1622), but no technical works are mentioned by the authors whom I have studied.

Almost at the end of the century the celebrated Archbishop of Cambrai, Fenelon, wrote his famous and valuable Dialogues on Eloquence. 1 Fenelon was himself a preacher of great eloquence and unction, and a man of saintly character. He did not write out his sermons, but the accounts of his i Dialogues sur VEloquence. There are various editions and translations. eloquence are full of recognition of his unusual powers in the pulpit. His little work on Elo quence, particularly referring to the eloquence of the pulpit, has a deserved fame and is still read and highly esteemed by students of the subject. A brief summary of the little book is here given.

There are three interlocutors. A represents the views of the author; B is the learner, with many wrong views but willing to be taught and finally agreeing with his teacher; C is the interested third party who puts in occasionally a side remark, but in the main coincides with A. The work thus openly follows the classical style as shown in many well-known writings.

There are three Dialogues. The first discredits the eloquence which is mainly for show and pleasure, and defends the view that the true aim of eloquence is to instruct the intelligence and improve the morals of the hearers. This of course is preeminently the aim of preaching. The author shows that this was the better theory and practice of the ancients, and sustains his argument by reference to Isocrates and Demosthenes as orators and to the writings of Plato, Aristotle and Cicero. The second Dialogue shows that in order to reach this end the orator must prove, picture and move. That is, he must appeal to the reason, the imagination and the feelings. This leads to the discussion of divisions and delivery. In regard to the latter and in accord with his own practice, Fenelon prefers the extemporaneous method after careful preparation. This conduces best to the true ends of eloquence. Also one should avoid use less and catchy ornaments. He should also avoid an extravagant overwrought delivery. On this point the author well says: “ Nothing appears to me so shocking and so absurd as to see a man who torments himself to tell me cold things. While he is perspiring he is freezing my blood.” The third Dialogue takes up the matter of interpreting Scripture. The author shows that the Scripture itself presents models of eloquence.

Much of this is plainly derived from Augustine. But the author discards and discredits the allegoric method of interpretation and commends Chrysostom’s manner of using Scripture, though criticizing him for diffuseness and other faults.

He follows Augustine in discussing the prophets (especially Amos) and the apostle Paul. He shows how the Fathers practiced or fell short of the true principles. At the end the author discusses panegyrics, which should conform to the principles laid down, and concludes with a quotation from Jerome: “Be not a declaimer, but a true teacher of the mysteries of God.” In Germany, though the times were distressing, there was among all three of the leading branches of Christian opinion Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed a good deal of homiletical teaching and writing. 1 A few of the more important works may be mentioned. The way was led by Felix i Mentioned by Lentz, Christlieb and others.

Bidenbach in 1603 with a Manual for Ministers.

Chr. Sehleupner (died 1634) followed with a Treatise Concerning the Four-Fold Method of Preaching. The book was written in Latin. He names the four methods as follows: The heroic or theandric, the textual or periphrastic, the local or articulate, and the thematic or Pancratian, after Pancratius, whose name was mentioned in the previous lecture. This mechanical scholastic method was pushed to extremes by several writers who followed. Lentz gives an interesting and amusing outline and criticism of the treatise of one Foerster, who enumerates and describes twenty-five different ways of preaching as follows: prosopopic, historic, topic, gnomic, periphrastic, peristatic, catechetic, syncretic, aetiologic, iatric, rhematic, textual, canonic (or aphoristic), allegoric, disputatory, dialogic, of terms, toposynoptic, zetematic, lexipractic, parallelitic, scenic, didascalic, mixed, and paradeigmatic! This learned foolery was carried still further by J. B. Carpzov, the elder who thought out and named in his treatise published at Leipzig in 1656, one hundred ways of preaching like unto these. Later the younger Carpzov revised and abbreviated this book. A better and more evangelical tendency was represented in Keckermann, a Reformed preacher, who published in 1614 a much used Ecclesiastical Rhetoric. Others among the Lutherans wrote treatises with more of practical and religious value, of whom Lentz mentions Balduin (1621), Chemnitz (1666), Goebel (1672), and Baier (1677). Among these authors the term homiletics came more and more into use to designate the art of preaching. A few German Catholic authors also belonged to this period, but none of their works appears to have gained distinction. In Holland * John Hoornbeek published in 1645 a Treatise on the Method of Preaching, which Van Oosterzee characterizes as the first original work on Homiletics published on Dutch soil. It, how ever, as was usual in that time, was written in Latin. This work was based chiefly on the principles of Gisbert Voetius (died 1676), and the dry scholastic method which it expounds is called Voetian. A better method was introduced and furthered by the celebrated theologian, Cocceius (died 1669), but its development belongs rather to the next century. In these German and Dutch treatises of the period under review there are two distinct homiletic tendencies: (1) The scholastic, which was mechanical, artificial, academic, tedious and dry; and (2) the more Scriptural and evangelical, which showed greater reality and spiritual power. But even this did not free itself wholly from the dry method and spirit of the age. Nothing of any value was added in this mass of writing to the theory and practice of preaching. It merely continued the principles of the past and prepared for a reaction toward more wholesome and sound iVan Oosterzee, p. 146. modes of treatment. As already pointed out one surviving point of interest is the use of the term Homiletics. In England, as we saw in the last lecture, what appears to have been the first treatise on the art of preaching was that of William Perkins, which was originally written in Latin but translated into English and published in 1613 by Thomas Tuke.

Several other works of less interest followed this, and in 1667 there was published a work which bore the title, Ecdesiastes, or a Discourse on the Gift of Preaching as It Falls Under the Rules of Art, by John Wilkins, D.D., Lord Bishop of Chester. 1 Bishop Wilkins (1614-1672) was a notable man.

He entered Oxford at the age of thirteen, and took his M.A. degree in regular course. In the great struggle between king and parliament he sided against the king and married a sister of Cromwell, by whom he was restored to his position in the Church of England. At the restoration he was ejected, but later reinstated and made Bishop of Chester in 1668. His merits and not political influence brought him his appointments. He was a friend of Tillotson, at whose house he died. He was highly esteemed and praised by Bishop Bur-net as: “A man of as great a mind, as true a judg ment, as eminent virtues, and of as good a soul as any he ever knew. He was a lover of mankind and delighted in doing good. He wrote and pub- i See The Christian Preacher, a collection by Ed. Williams, London, 1800 and 1843. lished a number of works of practical value in every time, not the least important or useful of which was this work on preaching. Though naturally written in the dry scholastic manner and running to minute analysis and subdivisions, the book is one of real interest and value. Some quo tations and condensations will give a taste of its quality.

/* Bishop Wilkins begins by saying: “It is the end of all sciences and arts to direct men by certain rules to the most compendious ways of knowledge and practice... Amongst all other callings, therefore, this of preaching, being in many respects one of the most weighty and solemn, should have its rules whereby we may be directed to the easiest and readiest way for the perfection of it.

... There are two qualities requisite in every preacher a right understanding of sound doc trine, and an ablTI^tcj3rojHfl^ ap-ffly^rf to. the.edificaton^ of others... This serv-icVofpreaching may be considered under a double notion as a duty, and a gift. It is here insisted upon only in the second sense... It requires both spiritual and artificial abilities: (1) Such spiritual abilities as must be infused from above.

... (2) Such artificial abilities as are to be acquired by our own industry; and these are either more general, as skill in all those arts and languages which are required as prerequisites, or more particular and important for the art of preaching, to which the general helps are these three: “ Method, Matter, and Expression. These contribute mutual assistance to one another. A good method will direct to proper matter, and suitable matter will invite good expression.” On the basis of this clear statement the author proceeds to discuss with excellent judgment the three topics of his treatise. As to method he describes it as: “An art of contriving our discourses on such a regular plan that every part may have its due place and dependence. This will be a great advantage both to ourselves and our hearers. “ He discusses these advantages briefly, and under the second says: “An immethodical discourse, though the materials of it may be precious, is but as a heap, full of confusion and deformity; the other as a fabric or building much more excellent both for beauty and use.” Further, on method he says:

* The principal scope of a divine orator should be to teach clearly, convince strongly and persuade powerfully; and suitable to these are the chief parts of a sermon: explication, confirmation and application. Besides these more essential parts which belong to the very nature and substance of a sermon there are less principal parts not to be included, which concern the external form of it such as the preface, transitions, and conclusion.” The author has some wise things to say about these, and then takes up and discusses with sound judgment and very clearly the main points of Explication (or interpretation of Scripture), Confirmation (or argument), and Application, which he declares to be: “The life and soul of a sermon; whereby these sacred truths are brought home to a man’s consciousness and particular occasions, And the affections engaged in favor of any truth for duty.” He distinguishes applications as doctrinal and practical and gives a few good precepts on the Conclusion. As to Matter the good bishop says the preacher must consider the conditions of his people and give himself to prayer, reading, meditation and study. As to Expression he says: “There are two things to be considered phrase and elocution,” by which, of course, he means style and delivery.

He says: The phrase should be plain, full, whole some and affectionate.” By the last he means full of feeling, and describes it “as proceeding from the heart and an experimental acquaintance with those truths which we deliver.” As to the Elocution (or delivery) he cautions that there are two extremes to be avoided too much bluntness and too much fear. The last important English work of this century was an Essay Concerning Preaching, written for the direction of a young divine by Joseph Glanvil Prebendary of Worcester and published in 1678.

Kidder calls it “a plain and sensible treatise,” but gives no particulars. I have not seen this work.

Besides these few treatises there were other homiletical instructions in English during the seventeenth century. In their charges to the clergy the bishops gave general advices on preaching with frequent particular hints, but not properly technical teaching of Homiletics. Thus Jeremy Tailor in a charge 1 gives such hints as follow: “Let every minister be careful that what he delivers be the Word of God; that his sermon be answerable to his text... Do not spend your sermons in general indefinite things... Let your sermons teach the duty of all states of men. to whom you speak... and in all things speak usefully and affectionately... In your sermons and discourses of religion use primitive, known and accustomed words, and affect not new fantastical or schismatical terms... Let the preacher be careful that in his sermons he use no light, immodest or ridiculous expressions, but what is wise, grave, useful and for edification; that when the preacher brings truth and gravity the people may attend with fear and reverence.”

Bishop Burnet gives in one of his charges 2 a chapter on Preaching with many excellent and sensible observations on making sermons. He urges attention to style. It must not be too pretentious. The preacher should know his Quintilian and Cicero. The good advice of the famous bishop is sadly marred by suggesting the use of other men’s sermons when necessary or desirable.

It is not to be wondered at that occasionally among 1 See The Christian Preacher, a collection by Ed. Williams, Duties), Oxford, 1843, p. 99ff.

2 Id., p. 206ff.

English clergymen this evil practice found vogue, since it was commended by such high authority.

It appears from the brief discussion that we have been able to give to it that English homiletical literature in the seventeenth century was of no great value or originality, but followed rather the traditional rhetorical and sometimes scholastic methods. Although in some respects the seventeenth century was the classic age of English preaching, its homiletical literature is scanty and is not distinctly great. The Eighteenth Century

It was much the custom of nineteenth century critics to speak slightingly of the literature of the eighteenth. This criticism took in sermons as well as other literature. Of late some reaction is noticeable, and many have come to speak more respectfully of the intellectual output in all realms of thought which comes from the eighteenth century. It is true that there was a let-down from the high standard of the seventeenth century and nothing like an approach to the splendid achievements of the nineteenth. Yet there was no utter failure in literature generally nor in preaching.

Naturally the same sort of generalization applies to the theory of preaching. There was not much of value produced during the eighteenth century, but yet that period was not only the historic but the vital connection between those which preceded and followed it. Thought did not flow over but through this period. So we have in the eighteenth century some teachings on Homiletics which it is worth while to investigate and briefly describe. So far as I have been able to make out there seems to have been nothing in Spain and Italy of any importance in the way of homiletical development and discussion. Kidder * mentions a few titles of works, but they do not seem important.

It is said that in the writings and letters of St. Alphonso dei Liguori (died 1787), the founder of the Kedemptorist Fathers, there are hints and instructions on preaching but no formal treatise. In fact, the writer of the article on Homiletics in Wetzer and Welte’s Church Lexicon seems to indicate that during the eighteenth century no contribution of any importance to the art of preaching was made by any Catholic writer outside of France. In France Fenelon’s Dialogues, written near the end of the seventeenth century, were much read and widely useful in the early part of the eighteenth century. In 1710 was published a treatise by Gaichies, Maxims on the Eloquence of the Pulpit. It had considerable vogue, but I have not been able to see a copy of it. A little later (1715) appeared Gisbert’s Christian Eloquence in Idea and in Practice. Kidder 2 speaks very highly of this work as having “the classic eloquence of 1 Op. cit., p. 463.

2 Id., p. 458.

Fenelon’s Dialogues, with a greater directness and didactic power. “ The author opposes with sound sense and good effect the extravagant and artificial style of preaching then so much affected. Of this work the writer on Homiletics in the Catholic Encyclopedia says: “The work which comprises twenty-three chapters does not follow the rigorous order of a didactical treatise and is with out the dryness of a scholastic manual. It has been rightly called an eloquent book on eloquence. It contains a series of talks on the faults to be avoided in the pulpit, on the qualities necessary for the preacher, on the matter and form of sermons, on oratorical action and decorum. Gisbert’s book suffices to make its author famous not only among the Catholic clergy, but even among Protestant pastors.”

Near the end of the eighteenth century, about 1793, Cardinal Maury published his Principles of Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar. This was rather, as the title indicates, a general treatise with applications to preaching. The brilliant author unfolds with force of thought and characteristic excellence of style the accepted principles of sacred and forensic eloquence. He illustrates by examples and criticisms of many ancient and mod ern orators. The criticisms are keen and competent, though not always just. The book is well worth reading. Of French Protestant treatises the only one of importance appears to be a set of Lectures on Preaching by J. F. Ostervald 1 (died 1747), the noted professor of theology at Neuchatel in Swit zerland. It was published from notes taken by stu dents in his classes and without the author’s consent. Notwithstanding this defect the matter was so good that it was thought worthy of translation into English, and was held in esteem both in France and England. In Germany the varieties of opinion and practice in preaching revealed themselves in the homi-letical literature of the eighteenth century. Of this there is a considerable amount, and some of it is of value. Early in the century the influence of Spener, the eminent Pietist who repudiated the scholasticism of the preceding epoch, was power fully felt. He himself paid little attention to form in preaching. Imbued with his ideas one of his followers, Joachim Lange, 2 published in 1707 a treatise whose title (translated from the Latin) indicates its aim: Sacred Oratory Purged From the Vanity of Homiletical Art. The pious author criticized very sharply the extremes of the preceding period, but naturally tended too far the other way in not giving sufficient attention to rhetorical art in the composition of sermons. Later came a more balanced presentation of the subject in the Eomiletic Precepts (still in Latin) of J. J. Kam-bach (1736). While teaching the need of meditation and dependence on the Holy Spirit he avoided 1 Kidder, p. 458.

2 Harnack, Geschichte und Theoric der Predigt, S. 138. the extremes of Pietism; and while declaring for a simpler division and discussion he eschewed the complicated scholastic method. This, however, was not defunct, as is shown by the appearance in 1720 of E. V. Loescher’s (still in Latin) Homiletic Breviary, or Summary of Ecclesiastical Oratory* This author at least had the grace to reduce Carp-zov’s one hundred methods of preaching to twenty-five.

After this time the German treatises were writ ten in that language, which was at least a point gained in further discrediting the scholastic method. Showing the influence of the Wolfian philosophy came J. G. Eeinbeck, who published in 1739 a treatise on Homiletics (now in German) with the title, Evangelical Oratory. 2 Soon after (at the instance of the Koyal Council of Berlin), he put out a shorter work with the title, Sketch of a Method of Preaching in an Orderly and Edifying Manner.

More important and valuable than these works was that of J. L. Mosheim, the famous church his torian and preacher. He lectured on Homiletics at the University of Gottingen, and is called by Th. Harnack 3 the father of modern spiritual eloquence.” Himself an admirable preacher, he shunned the faults of all the other schools and taught a sane, Scriptural and devout homiletical iLentz, II., SS. 144, 145.

2 Harnack, S. 142; Bering, S. 163. method. His lectures were published after his death (between 1755 and 1763) by Windheim with the title, Instruction on Preaching Edifyingly. He gives a brief survey of the history of preaching up to his own times, a critical outlook on the German pulpit, and on that of other lands, and then gives sound rules and principles for the right kind of preaching. He perhaps emphasizes the under standing a little too much, but he insists on the play of the spiritual feelings and surrender of the will to God.

Some works on preaching came from the ration alistic party among the Germans, but they were cold, critical and formal with little or no influence upon the development of homiletical theory or practice.

Near the end of the century F. V. Keinhard, lec turer and preacher at Wittenberg, and later court preacher at Dresden, exerted both from chair and pulpit a great homiletical influence. Some of his principles were outlined in his Confessions. He taught an evangelical Christianity, but did not entirely escape from a sort of rationalism. At least he emphasized thought and form more than spirituality. His method was analytical, neat and clear without going too far into the nicety of scho lastic definition and division. So far as I have been able to discover German Catholics do not appear to have contributed any thing of importance to homiletical theory during the eighteenth century. In Holland 1 the revolt of Cocceius and his fol lowers from the scholastic method went on in this century. Representing this school is a Rhetorica Ecclesiastica by F. H. Van der Honert, and an analytical tahle of subjects with Hints on Preaching by Van der Alphen. A still greater improvement is found in the useful work of F. A. Lampe (died 1729), with the title (in Latin) A Breviary of Homiletical Institutions. He taught a more spiritual and evangelical method akin to that of the better educated Pietists of Germany. The topical and Scriptural method of preaching employed by Tillotson and other English divines made a great impression in Holland, and the theory of this mode was expounded in a useful treatise by E. Hollebeek (died 1796), professor and preacher at Leyden. This style was furthered and improved by the writings and sermons of Gis-bert Bonnet (died 1805), professor at Utrecht.

Thus in Germany and Holland the development was from the old, tedious and academic Homiletics to one that was more Scriptural, evangelical, sim ple and practical. Yet the development was slow, for the earlier manner still had some influence. As we have seen, the better method was helped in Holland by the direct influence of English thought and practice.

“When we come to works on Homiletics in the English tongue during the eighteenth century it is interesting to find that among the first was one i See Van Oosterzee, Prae. Theol, p. 146ff. produced in New England. This little work came from the prolific pen of Cotton Mather, D.D., the famous Puritan preacher of Massachusetts. The author was the son and grandson of Puritan preachers. He was one of the most notable char acters in the religious history of colonial New England. He was a preacher of power, a leader of influence, a writer of learning, though much given to pedantry. Among his voluminous writingsis a little book which bears the title Manu-ductio ad Minis terium; Directions for a Candidate of the Ministry. Kidder * states that the work first appeared about 1710, and intimates that it was first published in England. But the edition here quoted bears on the title page the words “Boston... printed for Thos. Hancock and sold at his shop in Ann Street near the Draw-Bridge, 1726.”

After a pretentious Dedication and Introduction in Latin comes a table of contents giving the subjects discussed. It may be of interest to quote these entire. “ Death realized, True End of Life answered, Conversion to Piety accomplished, The right End of studies fixed, Study of Languages directed, Study of the Sciences, Of Poetry and of Style, Of Natural Philosophy, Of the Mathe-maticks, Of History, Some useful Proposals to Students, The Sentiments with which the Evan gelical Ministry is to be undertaken, Of reading the Sacred Scriptures, Study of Divinity entered upon, The Pulpit and the Work of It, Employ- iHomiletics, p. 445. ments for a Vigilant Pastor, The Genuine and Catholic spirit of Christianity described and commended, Eules of Health, Kules of Prudence.”

These announced subjects are all discussed in the little volume of 151 pages. In the beginning the title is repeated and an alternative used:

“Manuductio ad Ministerium, or The Angels Pre paring to Soimd the Trumpets.” The first fifteen sections discuss the subjects named in the table of contents and only in the sixteenth section does the author come to treat of preaching. Before that he has many quaint and amusing things to say, of which one may be taken as a sample. In urging the study of Hebrew he says, “But for the Hebrew I am importunate with you. And the more so because tis one remarkable instance of the depraved gust [taste] into which we have of later years degenerated that the knowledge of the He brew is fallen under so much disrepute as to make a learned man almost afraid of owning that he has anything of it, lest it should bring him under suspicion of being an odd, starved, lank sort of a thing who had lived on Hebrew roots all his days.” In section sixteen Dr. Mather takes up the subject of preaching. The section contains only eighteen pages and is ill digested and arranged.

It has no special originality, but is often judicious and quaint. He begins thus: “After all this preparation for the sanctuary you are now coming to feed the flocks on the high mountains of Israel; coming into an employment among the people of God in which I wish you may prove like the angel in the Revelation that came down from heaven, and the earth was lightened with his glory. I am now going to bring you into the pulpit. “ Later he says: The first thing which I have to demand of you is that you entertain the people of God with none but well-studied sermons, and employ none but well-beaten oil for the lamps of the golden can dle-stick.”

He has a brave and manly word to say against using other men’s sermons: “Your sermon must always be such that you may hope to have the blood of your Saviour sprinkled on it, and his good Spirit breathing in it. A sermon likewise it must be that shall discover you to be a workman; and be like the peace offerings of old, an oblation, which as the people of God have their share in it, so tis presented unto the glorious God Himself, the Great King, whose name is venerable. How such things as these can be compatible to stolen sermons, or concomitant with them, I cannot imagine.” After saying a few words full of good sense on selecting the subjects of sermons, he well says: “Among all the subjects with which you feed the people of God I beseech you let not the true Bread of Life be forgotten, but exhibit as much as you can of a glorious Christ unto them yea, let the motto upon your whole ministry be, Christ is All.” Again, “Be a star to lead men unto the Saviour, and stop not until you see them there.”

He urges that the preachers should present the doctrines of grace, and to that end should care fully study theology with the best authors, a num ber of whom he recommends. He insists that there should be prayerful preparation with pause and prayer at intervals during the composition. He enjoins a suitable delivery “a ^well-prepared sermon should be a well-pronounced one avoid unbecoming things, speak deliberately, do not be gin too high, conclude with vigor.” Mather prefers that there should be no use of notes in the pul pit, but if found necessary they should be used wisely, not the dull reading of them. What I therefore advise you to do is, Let your notes be little other than a quiver on which you may cast your eye now and then to see what arrow is next to be fetched from thence, and then, with your eye as much as may be on them whom you speak to, let it be shot away with a vivacity of one in earnest for to have the truth well entertained with the auditory.” By this last phrase, of course he means “well and profitably received by the hearers.” With regard to the conclusion he says: “Finally let your perorations often be lively expostulations with the conscience of the hearer appeals made and questions put unto the conscience, and consignments of the work over into the hands of that flaming preacher in the bosom of the hearer. In such flames may you do wondrously.” The rest of the treatise discusses pastoral duties and other matters as shown in the table of contents. Thus we see that in this earliest American book on the subject there is very little that is strictly homiletical or of any permanent value. But we have here at least a beginning of homilet ical teaching in our country, and as far as it goes, and with certain minor criticisms, it is a sound and sensible presentation of its subjects. Of English books only a few are worthy of men tion. Those of the early part of the century whose titles are given by Kidder seem not to be of any importance. He mentions a Methodus Evangelica, or Discourse Upon the Homiletical, Textual and Occasional Methods of Preaching, by Thos. Black-well (1712); and Ars Concionandi, by J. Bare-crofts, D.D., London (1715), and The Accom plished Preacher, by Sir Richard Blackmore, Lon don (1731).

More important than these was Lectures on Preaching and the Several Branches of the Minis terial Office, by Philip Doddridge, D.D. The copy I have nse^ is found in Volume V of Doddridge’s Works pvMi^d at Leeds in 1804.

Dr. Doddridge (1702-1751) was one of the wisest, most pious and useful of dissenting divines of his time. He was tenderly reared, well educated and began his work as a preacher while still young. It is said that two persons were converted under the preaching of his first sermon.

He began his work at Kibworth, a small charge which permitted time for study as well as devoted pastoral labor. In 1729 he joined with other min isters of the Congregational body in establishing a school for preparing young men for the ministry.

Soon afterward he moved with his school to Northampton. Here he remained for the rest of his life as pastor and teacher. During this time he produced his two most celebrated books, namely, The Else and Progress of Religion in the Soul and The Family Expositor, an exposition of the New Testament. These books have been of wide and permanent value. Doddridge’s nu merous labors in teaching, preaching, pastoral service, and writing, soon wore him out. He died before he was fifty years of age, but his influence has been great and abiding. His Lectures on Preaching as published are the result of the editing and comparing of several copies of pupils notes. They are therefore of the nature of an outline or syllabus of lectures which were enlarged on in the class. Thus the work is very imperfect in form and in style, but it is very judicious and full of common sense and piety. It begins with general admonitions on the ministerial work and character, discusses and rec ommends a number of practical writers suitable for young preachers, and in Lecture V takes up Rules for Composing Sermons. After announcing his subject and method he says: “When we are about composing a sermon we are to consider (1) What subject is to be chosen; (2) In what strain it is to be handled; (3) The style of the composition; (4) What thoughts we are to intro duce; (5) In what order we are to throw them.” To this he adds: “(6) Some further rules not comprehended under any of these heads.” On the choice of subjects Doddridge recom mends that the more difficult and profound themes be touched on in parts of sermons rather than that whole sermons should be given to them. Of course there are exceptions, but as a rule it is better not to make long theological discussions in sermons. He advises that the more practical and easily comprehended gospel themes should be gen erally used. On the Strains of preaching he explains that he means I c the general manner in which the whole discourse is composed.” So he discusses the various strains as argumentative, pa thetic, insinuated (or suggestive), evangelical, spiritual, experimental, and Scriptural. On Style he teaches that it should be pure, intelligible and clear, strong and nervous, calm and composed, orthodox, grave and solemn, plain and unaffected, interspersed with figures, free and easy, lively, various, harmonious. On the Choice of Thoughts he counsels that they should be solemn, useful, proper to the subject, such as naturally flow from the subject, some new in every discourse, popular and select that is, definite. On the Manner of Ar ranging the Thoughts, or divisions, he gives very sound advice. “Let the heads be distinct, not only in words but in meaning. Study to express them clearly, that the distinction may evidently appear. When it is otherwise the sermon cannot be understood, well received or tolerably remem bered, and the preacher himself, it will be sup posed, has not fully understood his subject.” With this good beginning he goes on to teach that there should not be too many divisions and subdivisions, that they should be expressed in as few words as possible, come in their natural order, should not be trite, and should be varied in dif ferent sermons as the subjects may suggest. He advises that the plan be stated at least twice and reviewed in the conclusion. “Let your hearers always perceive where you are, and be upon your guard against long digressions. “ In Lecture X Doddridge gives “more practical rules on the composition of a sermon.” He urges that time should be taken for devout meditation on the subject, and that the best frame and time for composing should be chosen. Then he discusses the process of composition, dealing with the introduction, explication, moving the feelings, use of Scripture quotations, appeal to conscience, and the conclusion. On this he remarks: “Do not leave off merely because you have nothing more to say; be sure to close handsomely.” With regard to Delivery (Lecture XI) he speaks of its obvious importance and urges that it be grave and serious, distinct in utterance, and “affectionate.” By this he mentis “full of feel ing,” and quotes Baxter as saying, “Nothing is more indecent than a dead preacher speaking to dead hearers the living truths of the Living God.

He proceeds to say that the delivery should be composed and sedate, various, natural and unaffected, “free,” i. e., above the servile use of notes. “To be able to preach without notes raises a man’s character. Accustom yourself to look much upon your auditory.” He then advises on ways to attain a good delivery, such as guarding against faults, seeking advice of others, and heeding criticisms. He then makes some general and detached suggestions on various points and turns from Homiletics proper to consider prayer, the study of the Scriptures, and pastoral duties.

Two of the most famous and influential works in English were the productions of Scotchmen.

George Campbell, LL.D, Aberdeen, published in 1775 his well-known Lectures on Pulpit Eloquence. His other work, the Philosophy of Rhetoric, not withstanding its faults, is a really great book and had large circulation and use in times past. The lectures on Pulpit Eloquence are solid, judicious and thoughtful. They encourage a Scriptural and evangelical use of rhetorical principles, but they are cold and dry. The subjects discussed will give some idea of the contents of the work. They are as follows: “Importance of Pulpit Eloquence, Helps for the Advancement of the Art, Sentiment in Pulpit Discourses, Expression (style), Pronunciation (delivery), Various Kinds of Dis courses, Lectures, Explanatory Sermons, Choice of Subject and Text, Introduction, Exposition, Division, Style, Conclusion, Controversial Dis courses, Discourses Addressed to the Imagination, to the Passions, to the Will.” The so-called “moderate,” that is, rationalistic branch of the Scottish Church, is represented by the famous Dr. Hugh Blair of Edinburgh. In his one-time celebrated Lectures on Rhetoric sev eral are devoted to the eloquence of the pulpit. The style is elaborate, the sentiment classic, the ideas and principles good and acceptable; but the spirit is that of the party to which the author belonged cool, intellectual, formal, lifeless. On the whole the English treatises on Homiletics during the eighteenth century are disappointing both as to number and quality. There is good sense for the most part, but no enthusiasm. The treatment is formed upon the classic principles of rhetoric with application to preaching rather than upon those of preaching itself.